Crossroads
EUROPE 1812 & 1815
CHINA & CONCESSIONS
JAPANESE EMPIRE
THE DECLINE
AND
PARTITION
OF THE
OTTOMAN
EMPIRE
RUSSIAN EMPIRE
Imperialism
True or False?
1. A British army faced a Sudanese army twice
its size. The British won the battle, losing only
48 men while killing 10,000.
2. Mountains of guano, sold to Europeans,
created an unprecedented class of
millionaires in Peru.
True or False?
3. The King of Belgium ran a private rubbercollecting company in the Congo that secretly
killed 8 million people.
4. England ruled India by committing only one
soldier per 10,000 Indian subjects.
True or False?
5. Three out of ten people in southern China
became addicted to opium as a result of British
merchants illegally shipping it there from India.
6. British railway builders in East Africa provoked
the biggest killing spree by lions in history: two
lions killed 135 men.
True or False?
7. The British Customs department grew an
impenetrable hedge across India to prevent the
smuggling of salt. This hedge, made mostly of
thorny bushes, was from ten to fourteen feet high
and from six to twelve feet deep. It stretched 2,504
miles and was guarded by nearly 12,000 men.
8. The biggest holes in the world were dug by hand
in South Africa. One was over 2.5 miles wide and
720 feet deep. It yielded thousands of pounds of
diamonds.
IMPERIALISM
•
Motives of imperialism
–
Modern imperialism
•
•
–
Two types of modern colonialism
•
•
–
–
European merchants made personal fortunes
Expansion to obtain raw materials
Colonies were potential markets for products
Political motives
•
•
–
Strategic purpose: harbors, supply stations
Overseas expansion used to defuse internal tensions
Cultural justifications of imperialism
•
•
Christian missionaries sought converts in Africa and Asia
"Civilizing mission“/"white man's burden“ justified expansion
Tools of empire
–
Transportation technologies supported imperialism
•
•
–
Steam-powered gunboats reached inland waters of Africa and Asia
Railroads organized local economies to serve imperial power
Western military technologies increasingly powerful
•
•
–
Firearms: from muskets to rifles to machines guns
In Battle of Omdurman 1898, British troops killed eleven thousand Sudanese in five hours
Communication technologies linked imperial lands with colonies
•
•
•
Colonies ruled and populated by migrants
Colonies controlled without significant settlement
Economic motives of imperialism
•
•
•
•
Refers to domination of industrialized countries over subject lands
Domination achieved by trade, investment, business activities
Oceangoing steamships cut travel time from Britain to India to weeks
Telegraph invented in 1830s, global reach by 1900
Difference between colonialism and imperialism
SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA
•
1875 and 1900
–
–
–
–
–
•
European powers seized almost the entire continent
Early explorers charted the waters, gathered information on resources
Missionaries like David Livingstone set up mission posts
Henry Stanley sent by Leopold II of Belgium to create colony in Congo, 1870s
To protect their investments and Suez Canal, Britain occupied Egypt, 1882
South Africa
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
•
Settled first by Dutch farmers (Afrikaners) in seventeenth century
By 1800 was a European settler colony with enslaved black African population
British seized Cape Colony in early nineteenth century, abolished slavery in 1833
British-Dutch tensions led to Great Trek of Afrikaners inland to claim new lands
Mid-19TH century, they established Orange Free State in 1854, Transvaal in 1860
Discovery of gold and diamonds in Afrikaner lands; influx of British settlers
Boer War, 1899-1902: British defeated Afrikaners, Union of South Africa
The Berlin Conference, 1884-1885
–
–
–
•
European powers set rules for carving Africa into colonies, Africans not invited
Occupation, supported by European armies, established colonial rule in Africa
By 1900 all of Africa, except Ethiopia and Liberia, was controlled by European powers
Colonial rule challenging and expensive
–
"Concessionary companies": granted considerable authority to private companies
•
•
•
–
empowered to build plantations, mines, railroads
made use of forced labor and taxation, as in Belgian Congo
unprofitable, often replaced by more direct rule
Direct rule: replacing local rulers with Europeans--French model
•
•
–
justified by "civilizing mission"
hard to find enough European personnel
Indirect rule: control over subjects through local institutions--British model
•
•
worked best in African societies that were highly organized
assumed firm tribal boundaries where often none existed
AFRICA 1880 & 1914
EMPIRE IN ASIA
•
The British empire in India
–
–
–
–
•
Company rule under the English East India Company
•
•
•
•
EIC took advantage of Mughal decline in India, began conquest of India in 1750s
Built trading cities and forts at Calcutta, Madras, Bombay
Ruled with small British force, Indian troops called sepoys
Sepoy Rebellion, 1857: attacks on British led to reprisals
British imperial rule replaced the EIC, 1858
•
•
•
British viceroy and high-level British civil service ruled India
British appointed viceroy, ran all domestic, foreign policy
Indians held low-level bureaucratic positions
Economic restructuring of India, Ceylon (Sri Lanka)
•
•
Introduction of commercial crops: tea, coffee, opium
Built railroads, telegraph lines, canals, harbors, irrigation
Did not interfere with Indian culture, religion
•
•
Established English-style schools for Indian elites
Outlawed Indian customs considered offensive, (sati)
Imperialism in central Asia and southeast Asia
–
–
–
–
–
"Great Game" refers to competition between Britain, Russia in central Asia
•
•
•
By 1860s Russian expansion reached northern frontiers of British India
Russian and British explorers mapped, scouted, but never colonized Afghanistan
Russian dominance of central Asia lasted until 1991
Dutch East India Company held tight control of Indonesia (Dutch East India)
British colonies in southeast Asia
•
•
Established colonial authority in Burma, 1880s
Port of Singapore founded 1824; was base for conquest of Malaya, 1870s
French Indochina created, 1859-1893
•
•
Consisted of Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos--former tribute states of Qing dynasty
French encouraged conversion to Christianity, established western-style schools
Thailand left in place as buffer between Burma and Indochina
IMPERIALISM IN ASIA
EMPIRES IN THE PACIFIC
•
–
–
–
•
–
–
–
–
–
–
Australia and New Zealand
•
•
•
•
•
Both became settler colonies in the Pacific
1770, Captain Cook reached Australia, reported it suitable for settlement
1788, one thousand settlers established colony of New South Wales
Became a penal colony after loss of Georgia in American Revolution
1851, gold discovered; surge of European migration to Australia
Fertile soil and timber of New Zealand attracted European settlers
Europeans diseases dramatically reduced aboriginal populations
European flora and fauna replaced most native species
Large settler societies forced indigenous peoples onto marginal lands
Pacific Islands
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Spain and the Pacific
Pacific had been a Spanish possession until 19th century (Philippines, Micronesia)
Spanish yearly shipments of silver from Mexico to China ended in 1812
Colonization of Pacific Islands delayed until late nineteenth century
Early American visitors to the Pacific
American Whalers throughout region after American revolution
American merchants on way to China began in 19th century
California Gold Rush open Pacific coast to immigrants from Europe, China
US challenged rule in 1854 when Commodore Perry forced Japan to open ports
Some missionaries active especially in Hawaii and on way to China
Late nineteenth century,
European states sought coaling stations and naval ports
1867: USA acquires Alaska, Wake Island
1898: USA acquires Hawaii, Philippines, Guam
1899: German buys remaining Spanish islands
By 1900, all islands claimed by France, Britain, Germany and United States.
Island plantations produced sugarcane, copra, guano
EMPIRES IN THE PACIFIC
U.S. IMPERIALISM
•
•
•
•
•
•
Westward Expansion, Manifest Destiny precede overseas imperialism
–
–
–
–
–
Americans push west after American revolution
Drove Indians from land
US purchases Louisiana from France
Opened up West to settlement
Americans saw it as God-given right to occupy continent
The Monroe Doctrine and Latin America
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1823: proclamation by U.S. president James Monroe
Opposed European imperialism in the Americas
Justified American interventions in late 19th, 20th century
Used doctrine to tell France to withdraw from Mexico in 1867
United States purchased Alaska from Russia in 1867
Hawaii became a protectorate in 1875, formally annexed in 1898
Tended to leave area open only for American investments, loans
The Mexican American War 1846 – 1848
–
–
–
US annexation of Texas set off conflict with Mexico
US defeats Mexico, annexed 1/3 of Mexican territory
Settlement of Far West, Pacific Coast, Great Basin follows
1867 – 1898
–
–
Acquires small Pacific Islands, Alaska from Russia in 1867
Economic interests in Hawaii lead to revolution, annexation in 1898
The Spanish-American War (1898-99)
–
–
US defeated Spain and took over Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and Philippines
US and Philippines
•
•
Backed Filipino revolt against Spain, purchased and took over the colony
1902-1904, bitter civil war killed two hundred thousand Filipinos, ended in U.S. victory
The Panama Canal, 1903-1914
–
–
–
Colombian government refused U.S. request to build canal at Panama isthmus
US helped rebels establish the state of Panama for the right to build a canal
Completed in 1914; gave United States access to Atlantic and Pacific
MAP OF AMERICAN IMPERIALISM
IMPERIAL JAPAN
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Japan and the West
1854: US Commodore Perry forces Japan out of isolation
Japanese resented unequal treaties of 1860s
Borrowed western knowledge
Resolved to become imperial power
Early Japanese expansion in nearby islands
1870s, to the north: Hokkaido, Kurile islands
By 1879, to the south: Okinawa and Ryukyu Islands
Meiji Government
Prussia trained Japanese army, Britain trained Japanese navy
Bought British warships, built up navy, began building own ships
Established military academies
1876, imposed unequal treaties on Korea at gunpoint
Made plans to invade China
The Sino-Japanese War (1894-95)
Rebellion in Korea: Chinese army sent to restore order, reassert authority
Meiji leaders declared war against China, demolished Chinese fleet
China forced to cede Korea, Taiwan, Pescadores, Liaodong peninsula
Japan helps suppress Boxer Rebellion, creates own zones in China
The Russo-Japanese War (1904-05)
Russia had territorial ambitions in Liaodong peninsula, Korea, Manchuria
Japanese navy destroyed local Russian forces
Reinforcements from Baltic sunk at Battle of Tushima
Japan now a major imperial power
Made an alliance with Great Britain
1910: Annexes Korea
JAPANESE EMPIRE
Emergence of Ideologies
NATIONALISM
• Born in France (Joan of Arc), spread abroad during French
Revolution
• Idea began as radical, adopted by liberals, used by conservatives
– An idea which could unify society across social classes
– Many aspects similar to religion, faith
– Loyalty to state often replaces loyalty to church, monarch
– Dominated 19th century
• Cultural nationalism
– An expression of national identity
– Emphasized common historical experience
– Used folk culture, literature, music
– Illustrated national spirit, distinctiveness
NATIONALISM, cont.
• Political nationalism more intense in the nineteenth century
– Demanded loyalty, solidarity from national group
– Minorities sought independence as national community
– Young Italy formed by Giuseppe Mazzini
• World-wide spread
– Contact with Europeans introduced others to idea of
nationalism
– Nationalism often brought with it western ideas, structures
– Strongest in Middle East, India, Japan
• Zionism
– Jewish nationalism as a response to European anti-Semitism
– Movement founded by Theodor Herzl to create Jewish state in
Palestine
– Jewish state of Israel finally created in 1948
Conservatism
•
Conservatism
– Called the Ancien Regime
– Resisted change, opposed revolutions
– Importance of continuity, tradition, aristocracy
– Edmund Burke
• Viewed society as organism that changed slowly over
time
• American Revolution: natural, logical outcome of history
• French Revolution: violent and irresponsible
– Congress of Vienna was a Conservative restoration
• Restored Balance of Power; ruled through great powers
• Monarchy was at heart of conservatism
EMERGENCE OF IDEOLOGIES
•
Liberalism
– Welcomed controlled change as an agent of progress
– Strongly middle class, support economic reform, education
to help industrialization
– Wanted to reform political structure, increase electorate
slightly
– Championed freedom, equality, democracy, written
constitutions
– Limits on state power, interference in individual freedoms
– John Stuart Mill championed individual freedom and
minority rights
EMERGENCE OF IDEOLOGIES
•
Radicalism
– Accepted liberal ideas but wanted universal voting rights
– Many wanted outright democracy, social reforms in
interests of lower classes
– A few were socialists, attacked all private property, class
status
– Saw radical solutions (revolution) as only way to change
the status quo
– Represented by French Revolution, democracy, early
nationalism
IMAGINED COMMUNITIES
•
Concert of Europe 1815 - 1860
– Congress of Vienna, 1814-15
• Conservative victory: restore old order after defeat of Napoleon
• Maintained balance of power in Europe for a century
• Failed in repressing nationalist and revolutionary ideas
– Concert of European great powers called Holy Alliance
•
•
•
•
•
UK, Russia, Prussia, Austria, France working in “concert”
Attempted to prevent revolutions, change
Intervened militarily to oppose change
Often forced to limit, control changes
Nationalist rebellions
– Against old order throughout nineteenth century
– 1800s: Haiti, Latin America
– 1820s
• Greek Revolution: rebels overcame Ottoman rule in 1827
• Mehmet Ali in Egypt, defeated by French, English, Russians
– 1830/1848
• Italy, Belgium, France, Spain, Portugal, Poland, Austria, Germany
• Conservatism usually restored but revolutionary ideals persisted
•
Imagined Communities
– Groups begin to form based on a perceived sense of community
– Each group defined by agreed upon set of values, goals
UNIFICATION OF ITALY
•
Italy
–
After Congress of Vienna
• Italy divided into small states: all states except Sardinia, Papacy
ruled by foreign dynasties
• Austria was the preeminent power in Italy
• Mazzini, Nationalist, formed Young Italy inspired uprisings against
foreign rule
–
1848 Nationalist revolution destroyed by Austrian troops
–
Sardinia and Cavour
• Italian Sardinia only ethnic Italian state
• Prime Minister of Sardinia becomes leader of nationalists
• Expelled Austrian authorities in northern Italy, 1859 with French
aide
–
Garibaldi
• Revolutionary nationalist, democrat
• Staged revolutions, later seized control of Southern Italy
–
1860-1870: Italian states united under Sardinia
MAP OF UNIFICATION
UNIFICATION OF GERMANY
•
Germany
–
After Congress of Vienna Dominated by Austrian von Metternich
•
German Confederacy a collection of independent states dominated by
Austria
•
Prussia the largest German state but limited in action by Austria
•
Metternich’s System: preserved conservatism, persecuted liberalism, hated
nationalism
–
1848 Revolution
•
Destroyed by Austria
•
Ended hope of liberalism, constitutionalism, national unification
•
Left Prussia humiliated, looking for revenge
–
Prussian and Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898)
•
Created a united Germany through blood and iron
•
Used conservatism, militarism married with nationalism
•
Bismarck provoked three wars that swelled German pride
•
Defeated Austria, France to unify Germany under Prussia
–
1871, Prussian king proclaimed emperor of the Second Reich
MAP OF UNIFICATION
Balance of Power
DIPLOMACY: BALANCE OF POWER &
HEGEMONY
•
•
Century: Era of Western hegemony in all areas
Balance of Power dominates century
–
–
–
After Napoleon, great powers kept peace
Intervened in European affairs to maintain balance
Goals and Policies
•
•
•
•
•
No one power should dominate
No nation should be eliminated
No permanent ideologies threaten peace
Brokered conferences to decide touchy issues
International Organizations
–
Non-governmental Organizations new in history
•
•
–
Red Cross
•
•
–
Established at end of Crimean War
Provide health care, relief following catastrophes
Olympics
•
•
–
Try to promote international accord
Establish cooperation
Resurrected in 1896
Healthy competition
International Laws
•
•
Diplomacy reaches highest level during period
Rules of Peace and War
–
–
–
–
Hague Conferences and Conventions
Agreements create standards, rules of war, peace
Neutrality was a key concept
Civilians were not to be touched
PRE-WAR ALLIANCES
•
–
–
•
–
–
•
–
–
•
–
–
–
Rival systems of alliance
•
•
•
•
•
Germany forms alliances
Bismarck attempts to isolate France
Until 1890, Germany had alliances with all except France
Obligated allies to come to one another's defense
France and Russia
Found themselves isolated, fearful of Germany
Formed Double Entente to end their isolation
The Triple Alliance
•
•
•
•
Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy
Germany, Austria allied 1879
Italy joined in 1882 (Triple Alliance)
Others Allied States
Ottoman Empire: German railroads, reforms of military
Bulgaria and Rumania fearful of Russia and Serbia
The Double and Later Triple Entente
•
•
•
•
•
•
France, Russia
Common enemy: Germany, common war plans
Worked together diplomatically
Why the United Kingdom joined
Due to rivalry with Germany over colonies and German construction of a navy
After German pre-war diplomacy seemed to lead to war
Shifting series of treaties ended with a military pact, 1914
Japan had a separate alliance with Great Britain for Asia Pacific
War plans: each power poised and prepared for war
Military leaders devised inflexible military plans and timetables
France's Plan XVII focused on offensive maneuvers and attacks
Germany's Schlieffen plan: swift attack on France, defend against Russia
ALLIANCES
c. 1914