Fashioning a New Nation
How the American Government was
Formed and Developed
Articles Of Confederation
Written during the Revolution to provide a national government, the
Articles of Confederation provided for a Congress in which each state had
but one vote on most proposed legislation. Many actions, including the
powers to tax, to regulate trade, or to expand national power, required a
UNANIMOUS vote. As result, many political leaders considered the
government to be too weak to function properly.
New States
The Northwest Ordinances (1785-86)
provided a method for admitting new
states, guaranteeing those states the same
rights as the original 13 states.
While Thomas Jefferson devised a plan for
new states, the settlers themselves proved
to have the last word in how a new region
was settled (and what it was to be named).
New states would have an enormous
impact on how the political life of the
nation changed over time.
Dissatisfaction in the West
In 1786, a group of western
Pennsylvania, led by Revolution
veteran Daniel Shays (left), briefly
rebelled against the government of the
state, complaining that the “nabobs in
Philadelphia” and the Federal
government did little to help the people
on the frontier.
This brief revolt ignited calls for a
meeting to “revise the Articles of
Confederation.”
Inflation, Taxes and Power
This Federalist political cartoon from Connecticut portrays the state as a cart
stuck in the mud and weighed down by paper money and debt. While
Federalists proclaim “Comply with Congress” and pull the state toward a
bright sun, the Anti-Federalists exclaim “Success to Shays” and drag the cart
toward a shadowy future symbolized by the dark clouds.
T
The Demi-gods
In 1786, 12 delegates (including James
Madison) met in Annapolis Maryland to
suggest amendments to the Articles of
Confederation that would remove state
barriers to commerce. Instead they
called for new convention to meet in
Philadelphia to fix “important defects in
the system of the Federal Government.”
Jefferson called those who went to
Philadelphia “an assembly of demigods” – he was in France and angry he
could not be there. The delegates in
1787 were actually very human and had
very specific (and different) agendas.
Big States vs. Small States
James Madison, a friend of
Thomas Jefferson, resented the
fact that small states (like New
Hampshire) had the same power
in the Federal legislature as the
larger states (like Madison’s
Virginia). Madison designed a
model for stronger Federal
government that would create a
strong executive figure and a
legislature that would assign votes
according a state’s population.
Opening the Convention
The Convention opened at Freedom
Hall in Philadelphia in May 1787.
Calling for a “properly constituted
national government,” Edmund
Randolph introduced Madison’s
“Virginia Plan.” The convention was
deadlocked for 2 months over this issue.
Unity imperiled
Leaders of smaller (population) states, like New
Jersey and Delaware, disliked Madison’s
“Virginia Plan” because they feared that the
large states would vote as a bloc and leave the
smaller states powerless. In response to Madison,
William Paterson of New Jersey (left) offered a
plan which would award each state one vote in
the legislative branch of government.
Resolving this basic difference between the big
and the small would be the first challenge in
creating a new government.
Paterson ultimately supported the US
Constitution and after serving as a US Senator
for NJ, became a Supreme Court justice.
Compromise
The deadlock over representation was broken by a “great
compromise,” dividing the new congress into two parts – a “house of
representatives” where states were given representatives according
to their populations; and a “senate” where two persons represented
each state. This compromised opened to the way to completing a
plan for the new government.
A Powerful Executive
One reason the constitution gave broad powers to the office of
president was the certainty that the first president would be George
Washington. Washington’s public act in resigning his commission
as head of the army in 1783 (above) reassured other leaders that
Washington would use his powers wisely.
Other features of the Constitution
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A “three-fifths” compromise dealt with slavery by making each slave
3/5 of a free person for census count (and representation). The “slave
trade” (buying slaves in Africa) was to be outlawed after 20 years.
A separate court system was created to be independent of the
president and congress, with judges granted life tenure on the
Federal bench.
The Constitution guaranteed a “trail by jury” to all charged in
“criminal cases” (those that would lead to a jail sentence).
Judges and the president could be removed by impeachment.
The Federal government would manage the “national lands” by
setting up new territories and states.
No state could discriminate against citizens of other states.
The Constitution could be changed by amendments.
Bargaining for ratification
When the draft of the Constitution was completed, a major campaign was
undertaken to get the states to adopt the new form of government. Writing
as “The Federalist,” Alexander Hamilton, James Madison. And John Jay
(left to right), published 85 essays explaining the design of the constitution
and how it would create a stable government while protecting the rights of
individuals and the states.
The Anti-Federalists
Several state leaders opposed
the ratification of the
constitution, arguing that it
would create a government that
would become too powerful and
too remote from by population
at large. Luther Martin (right),
a brilliant but eccentric lawyer
in Maryland, wrote several
essays arguing that the Federal
government would eventually
“trample the rights of the
people.” The constitution could
not be put into force until 9 of
the 13 states accepted it.
A Bill of Rights
Some of the most respected men at the
Constitutional Convention opposed
the ratification of the Constitution
unless it contained a “bill of rights”
that specifically spelled out the rights
of individuals. George Mason of
Virginia (left) had enough influence to
make ratification in Virginia
uncertain. Only after Washington and
Madison gave him their word that the
constitution would be amended with a
Bill of Rights did Mason withdraw his
objections
Ratification
When New Hampshire (the 9th
state) ratified the Constitution
in May 1788, an elaborate
celebration was held on July 4,
1788. But not until Virginia
and New York ratified the
Constitution (in July) did the
old Congress of the Articles of
Confederation call for an
election to choose a president.
North Carolina and Rhode
Island held off joining the new
arrangement for more than a
year.
Critical States
New York ratifies the Constitution and become the “11th Pillar” of the U.S.
Supporters of the Constitution regarded Massachusetts, Virginia,
Pennsylvania, and New York as the critical states – if any of these rejected the
new nation, it could well fail.
Washington Inaugurated
Washington was elected
president by a unanimous
ballot of the Electoral
Congress. He was
inaugurated in New York, the
temporary capital, on April
30, 1789. Despite the great
trust that the nation had in
Washington, he faced serious
challenges, including the
threat of war from Europe, a
large Federal debt, and a
divided cabinet.
Massive debt
America in 1789 was $77 million in debt,
nearly all of it due to the costs of the
revolution (in expenses for supplies,
pensions to the war’s veterans, etc.).
Alexander Hamilton, the Secretary of the
Treasury, proposed that the government
would pay off the debt through taxes on
overseas trade (called tariffs), land sales,
and long-term bonds invested with
“sound” banks.
Hamilton had more influence
with northern Congressmen
than anyone else.
While his proposal was a good one, it
would have the side-effect of helping
wealthy Americans (who owned the
revolutionary bonds of debt) get even
wealthier.
Paying for Government
The Federal government had only two
sources of income – the sale of lands in
the west and the taxes (tariffs) on
imports from overseas.
As Secretary of the Treasury,
Hamilton persuaded Washington to
support creation of a “Bank of the
United States” that could handle
government finances and arrange
loans for the government.
Jefferson, the Secretary of State,
feared this bank would allow the
“wealthy and powerful” to sway
Federal policies.
Interlude in Philadelphia
Until a permanent site for the national capital was selected, the Federal
offices were in Philadelphia, where the Declaration of Independence had
been written. Southerners, fearing the growing clamor against slavery,
wanted the capital to be in a southern state.
Education in Citizenship
This book of children’s verse uses America’s
new national symbol, the bald eagle, taken
from the Great Seal of the United States.
Educational materials -- such as this book of
child’s verses -- included republican and
patriotic themes.
New novels, plays, and other forms of
entertainment contained ‘lessons’ on the role
of the citizen in the new Federal government
– In Royall Tyler’s “The Algerine Captive”
the main character of the story joins a slavebuying expedition. Though he describes the
horror of slavery, he accepts its legality
because it is protected by the Constitution.
Corruption and Real Estate
Congress Embarked on the Ship Constitution-- Jefferson and Madison
hoped that by relocating the capital to a new home on the Potomac, they
could 1) reduce the dangers of federal government corruption; 2) give
Virginia greater influence. In this cartoon the devil lures Congress to its
temporary home in Philadelphia.
The New Capital of the Country
As the leader of most
southerners in Congress,
Jefferson made a
“gentleman’s agreement”
with Hamilton. In return for
a promise to build the new
national capital on land
along the Potomac River,
Jefferson would get Congress
to approve Hamilton’s plan
for Federal government
finances. But he stilled
worried that Hamilton’s
ideas would hurt “liberties”
in the country.
Division and Political Parties
As the only leader trusted by almost all the
voters, Washington reluctantly agreed to be reelected in 1796, rather than let the nation be
divided between the “Federalist” followers of
Hamilton and the “Republican” followers of
Jefferson.
Ironically, even though Jefferson and his
followers called themselves “Republicans” (those
who wanted a republic of limited government
powers), the political party they created was
later renamed the “Democratic Party.” Every
year since 1826, the Democrats have held a
celebration of Jefferson’s birthday to honor him
as the founder of their party.
Party Organization
During the 1790s, both the Federalists and the
Republicans invested a great deal of effort and
money in newspapers that would editorialize
their policies and support their candidates for
office. Local and State governments, and even
Federal offices, helped newspapers loyal to their
party by giving those newspapers contracts to
print official notices, laws, etc.
This “printing patronage” was to be a
cornerstone of party organization for over 100
years in America.
Revolution
Divisions over policy in Washington’s
government were made worse by the
French Revolution. When the French
overthrew (and later executed) their
king, followers of Jefferson hailed it as
an advance for liberty. Hamilton’s
followers feared it could create social
chaos in America.
Because the new France was also at war
with Britain, the situation threatened to
hurt American trade in Europe.
Soon much of the nation was divided
over all of these inter-locked issues.
The French Revolution
This Federalist cartoon shows
the French Revolution
debasing Liberty, who appears
in tattered clothes but sports
the tricolor cockade, symbol of
the revolution, in her hair.
Liberty sits in front of the
bodies of victims decapitated
by the guillotine, a bloody
symbol of what Federalists
regarded as the French
Revolution’s perverse theories
of justice.
Trouble with Britain and France
As the war between France and Britain continued, American interests continued
to be harmed. British naval vessels would stop American merchant ships, seize
cargoes intended for Europe, and also seize American sailors, claiming they were
“deserters from the British navy.” Newspapers loyal to Jefferson called for a
war against Britain.
French pressures
France also posed problems for America. EdmondCharles Genet, a diplomat from France, hired
American sailors to seize British ships in the Atlantic,
and recruited Americans for an army to attack British
territory in the Florida peninsula. President
Washington, angry that these actions could lead
America into a war, wanted Genet deported back to
France.
Ironically, when the government of France changed
hands because of a coup, Genet was granted political
asylum in America and remained in the country until
his death in 1834.
Adams in the middle
John Adams, the second president,
found himself caught between the
followers of Jefferson and those of
Hamilton. His one term as president
was mostly a failure, largely because
he could not develop an effective way
to govern with Congress divided and
the United States powerless to stop
either France or Britain from
interfering with American trade
across the ocean.
Near war and restrictions on the press
•Alien Act: Allowed the president to deport citizens of other countries
or imprison them.
•Naturalization Act: Required all foreign nationals to live in the US
for 14 years before being allowed American citizenship.
•Sedition Act: allowed the government to arrest and convict
publishers for “making false, scandalous and malicious” statements
about the government and its officials. Act was to run for 3 years.
In 1798, supported by followers of Hamilton in Congress, Adams pushed
through laws that he thought would help the U.S. counter British and French
pressures. These laws allowed the Federal government to curtail foreign
influence in the U.S. and to reduce newspaper criticism of the government.
Jefferson said that the Sedition Act was a “violation of the liberty of speech
(First Amendment) – but as yet, no court had the power to determine the
“constitutionality” of a law.
Jefferson the Radical
Jefferson’s opponents portrayed
him as an atheist who drew radical
ideas from the French Revolution.
In this image the American eagle
tries to prevent Jefferson from
throwing the Constitution into the
flames emanating from the altar of
Gallic (French) despotism.
Jefferson’s strength rested on those
who wanted land, new states, new
commercial opportunities, and
protection of slavery.
Election of 1800
In 1800, Jefferson defeated Adams but the
election had to be decided by the House of
Representatives. Aaron Burr tried to win
the election by intriguing for electoral
votes pledged to Jefferson.
Jefferson won in the House only because
his old rival Alexander Hamilton
persuaded some of his followers to vote for
Jefferson.
The 12th amendment was added to the
Constitution to create specific vicepresidential candidates.
Jefferson rewards his followers
On this sheet of paper, Thomas
Jefferson listed the names of the
major political leaders who helped
him win election to the presidency
in 1800. Next to many of the names
are the Federal offices he planned
to offer to each man.
Jefferson is credited with creating
the “spoils system,” in which a
president gave Federal jobs to
those loyal to him. But in fact, this
system was in use in Britain and
America long before the
Constitution was written.
Enlarging Supreme Court power
Jefferson refused to grant last-minute Federal
court appointments made by John Adams in the
last hours of his term in office. William
Marbury, one of the men appointed, sued in
court to get his judgeship. The issue had to
settled by the Supreme Court. There, John
Marshall, the chief justice, ruled that the law for
creating the judgeships violated the Constitution.
In this way, Marshall secured for the court the
power to decide the constitutionality of Federal
(and later, state) laws.
Death of Hamilton
In July 1804, Alexander
Hamilton was killed in a duel by
Aaron Burr, Jefferson’s
disgraced vice-president.
Hamilton’s death marked the
beginning of the end of the
Federalist Party movement.
The Republican Party of
Jefferson (later renamed the
Democratic Party) would
dominate American politics for
the next 50 years.