Fall 2009
Dr. Bobby Franklin
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“. . . [the] systematic, controlled empirical and
critical investigation of natural phenomena
guided by theory and hypotheses about the
presumed relations among such phenomena.”
(Kerlinger and Lee, 1999)
systematic process of collecting and
analyzing data or information in order to
increase our understanding of the
phenomena about which we are concerned
or interested. (Leedy and Ormrod, 2001)
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Experience – may not have a complete
understanding of the observed phenomenon
Authority – Use experts - limited
◦ Customs
◦ Traditions
◦ Experience/knowledge
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Deductive reasoning – moving from general
to specific
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True deductions must have true premises
Comes from existing knowledge
Scientific inquiry can’t come from deduction alone
Can link theory and observation
Can help build hypothesis
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All men are mortal
The king is a man
The king is mortal
All fish have gills
My pet has gills
My pet is a fish
Poor children are low performers
Joe is poor
Joe will be a low performer
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The conclusion can’t be stronger than the
premises
To arrive at true conclusions the premises
must be correct
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Inductive reasoning – using facts to make
generalizations about the whole or
population
Deduction
Every mammal has lungs
All rabbits are mammals
Every rabbit has lungs
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Induction
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Every observed rabbit has lungs
Every rabbit has lungs
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Perfect induction – every example must be
observed
Imperfect induction – use observations from a
sample to infer a characteristic of the entire
group
 Poor children are low performing
 A large percentage of poor children are low performing
 Children born into poverty have a high probability of
being low performing students
 “It’s
not so much what folks don’t
know that causes problems. It’s
what they know that ain’t so.”
(Artemus Ward)
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Scientific approach – a systematic process for
obtaining knowledge that is theory driven and
centers around a testable hypothesis
Hypothesis – a statement that describes
relationships among variables and is assumed
to be true and testable
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With the scientific approach one reasons what
would be found if a hypothesis is true then
through systematic observations you confirm
or fail to confirm the hypothesis
Research (traditional research) vary in complexity
and duration, however, research typically has 8
distinct characteristics…
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originates with a question or problem
requires a clear articulation of a goal
follows a specific plan of procedure
divides the main problem into sub-problems
guided by the specific research problem,
question or hypothesis
accepts certain critical assumptions
requires the collection and interpretation of
data in an attempt to resolve the problem
by nature cyclical or helical
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State the problem
Hypothesize as to the cause of the problem
Experiments to test each hypothesis
Predict the results
Observe results/collect data
Draw conclusions from results about the
hypothesis
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Research is always problem solving
based….Always should provide an answer to
some question.
To avoid making error or drawing erroneous
conclusions
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All natural phenomena have antecedent
(preceding) factors called universal
determinism. Under specified conditions
certain events will occur
Reliable knowledge is derived only from
direct and objective observations
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Be skeptical toward the data
◦ findings are tentative and must be verified.
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Be objective and impartial
◦ Avoid bias and trying to prove a point
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Deal with facts
◦ Don’t interject values just interpret the data
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Integrate and systemize their findings
◦ Create order from the data
◦ Seek theories that explain observable phenomena
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Theory
◦ Set of interrelated constructs and propositions that
presents an explanation of phenomena and allows one
to make predictions about relationships among variables
related to the phenomena
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Law
◦ A statement of fact based on observable phenomena
 Gravity, thermodynamics, gas
 Death is inevitable
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Hypothesis
◦ Prediction about phenomena that can be tested
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Theories can be a framework for research
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Paradigms also affect research
◦ A set of assumptions, concepts, values, and
practices that constitutes a way of viewing reality
for the community that shares them, especially in
an intellectual discipline
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Subject matter & situations are very complex
with many variables that interact
Observations are difficult and interpretations
are often subjective by the observer
Difficult to replicate – never exact- can only
be similar
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Observer and subjects can inter act –
Hawthorne effect
Control is difficult at best – restrictions
involved in human research
Measurement difficult –
◦ Not always sure of what you are measuring
◦ Must develop instruments to measure new concepts
◦ Even instruments that seem to measure the same
thing may not.
Good Research generates dependable data,
being driven by practices that are
conducted professionally and that can be
used reliably for managerial decision
making.
Characteristically:
 Purpose clearly defined (define the scope,
limitations, and precise meanings)
 Research process detailed
 Research design thoroughly planned ( to
avoid bias)
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High ethical standards applied
Limitations frankly revealed
Adequate analysis for decision maker’s needs
Findings presented unambiguously
Conclusions justified
Researcher’s experience reflected