N O T E B O O K #4
Name:_______________________________
Period:______
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Early 1500s, religious conflict was mainly struggle between Lutherans & Zwinglians in central Europe o Late 1500s, focus shifted to Western Europe – France, Netherlands, England, Scotland – where
Calvinists fought for recognition

After Peace of Augsburg & la w that a country’s ruler decided its religion, Lutheranism became a legal religion o Non-Lutheran Protestants, however, were not yet recognized

Outside Holy Roman Empire, struggles for religious freedom were everywhere o After Council of Trent, Catholics (led by Jesuits) began an international counteroffensive against
Protestants o By 1564, Geneva was a refuge for persecuted Protestants (where leaders of resistance movements soon rose up) o Genevan Calvinism & Catholicism were dogmatic, aggressive, and irreconcilable
 Calvinists seemed like “new papists” to many
 But when their religious rights were denied, they became revolutionaries o Calvinism became dominated by regional & local religious leaders (instead of one main figure)
 Boards of presbyters (elders) represented individual congregations

Counter-Reformation offered an organized church hierarchy (pope to priest) & demanding unquestioning obedience to the leader (pope) o The high clergy (pope & bishops) were in charge – not local clergy

Opponents of such hierarchical rule were then attracted to Calvinism

Supporters of monarchy remained loyal to the Catholic Church

Even the art & architecture of the two religions was vastly different o Catholic Counter-Reformation liked the baroque style
 Baroque art – presented life in big, 3-dimensional displays of energy

Great baroque artists – Peter Paul Rubens & Gianlorenzo Bernini – were
Catholics

Protestant artists at the time were more restrained – Rembrandt

Catholic Church: o Used decorated altars, statues, paintings, etc. to inspire worshippers o Wanted Eucharist to be center of Mass

Protestant Church: o Used no decoration – did not want to distract people from what’s important o Open Bible & raised pulpit dominated in the church
 Keep worshippers’ attention on God’s word & their own immortal souls

As religious wars erupted in Europe, intellectuals realized the benefit of religious toleration (much more than politicians did) o Skepticism & individualism became respected in regards to religion o Writers questioned everything about religion:
 People don’t kill because of religious doctrine – they kill because they want to
 All religious dogma & creeds became suspect
 Many advised people to look inside themselves – not some church or prayer – for religious truth
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
Religious conflict was held in check by rulers who made political unity more important than religious doctrine o These rulers – politiques – promoted tolerance, compromise, and moderation
 The most successful of them was Elizabeth I of England
 Mary I of England, Philip II of Spain, and Oliver Cromwell – who all took religion seriously and refused to compromise on anything – didn’t reach their political goals

French Protestants are called Huguenots o Term comes from Besancon Hugues – leader of Geneva’s revolt in 1520 that begin their Protestant
Reformation
 As soon as Luther’s writings entered France, Huguenots became suspect o When Charles V captured French king Francis I in 1525, the first wave of persecution of Protestants began in France
 French were trying to make Habsburgs (Catholics) happy so Charles would release Francis o 2 nd crackdown happened in 1534
 October, Protestants plastered Paris with anti-Catholic signs
 Mass arrests of suspected Protestants followed

John Calvin & other reformers were forced into exile o 1540, Edict of Fontainebleau subjected French Protestants to the Inquisition o 1551, Henry II passed more laws against Protestants in Edict of Chateaubriand

French monarchs all persecuted Protestants until Henry IV took power in 1589

In 1559, France began to suffer from internal conflicts o The conflict would cause balance of power to shift in Europe from France to Spain o It all started with an accident
 During a tournament to celebrate marriage of Henry II’s daughter to Philip II of Spain,
Henry was killed by a lance piercing his visor
 His son – Francis II – then took power

But the 15-year-old died within a year (ear infection  brain abscess)
 Three powerful families now competed for young king’s attention & thus power: o Bourbons – powerful in south & west o Montmorency-Chatillons – controlled central France o Guises – dominated in east

Guises would eventually control the young king o Francis, duke of Guise, was Henry II’s general & his brothers were cardinals in church o Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots, widow of Francis II, was their niece
 Guise family were staunch Catholics

Bourbon & Montmorency-Chatillon families were sympathetic to Huguenots o They became the leaders of the French Protestant resistance o They even planned to kidnap Francis II in 1560 (aborted the plan)

Many French (rich & poor) joined Calvinist churches to oppose the Guise-dominated monarchy o By 1561, there were over 2000 Huguenot congregations in France o But they made up only 1/15 th of the French population
 However, they were heavily represented among the more powerful groups in France

40% of the aristocracy were Huguenots

Over time, the military organization merged with the French Huguenot churches o Each side benefited from the other
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o But this mixing with secular organizations caused many to grow suspicious of the “religious” appeal of
Calvinism
 Religion often had nothing to do with becoming a Calvinist in 16 th -century France

When Francis II died in 1560, Catherine de Medicis became regent for her son, Charles IX o Afraid of the power of the Guises, Catherine wanted to protect the monarchy o So she tried to gain allies among the Protestants
 1562, she issued the January Edict – gave Protestants freedom to worship publicly outside towns
& to hold synods (councils)

March 1562, such freedom ended o Duke of Guise surprised a Protestant congregation at Vassy, massacring many of the worshipers
 This event marked the beginning of the French wars of religion

Had Huguenot armies rushed to help the queen after the massacre, Protestants might have gained an alliance with the monarchy o Huguenots hesitated, however, and the Guises remained in control of monarchy

During 1 st French war of religion (1562-1563), duke of Guise was assassinated

Bloodiest stage happened from 1568-1570 o During this stage, the Bourbon Louis I - the prince of Conde (Huguenot leader) - was killed o Now the Montmorency-Chatillon admiral Gaspard de Coligny took over
 This was a good thing – Coligny was a much better military strategist o In the peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye – which ended the 3 rd war – monarchy gave the
Huguenots religious freedoms & right to fortify their cities

Queen Catherine wanted a Catholic France, but she hated the power of the Guises o After peace, she started favoring the Bourbons and the Huguenots o Coligny became Charles IX’s most trusted adviser

As Protestant influence grew, however, Catherine started to plot with the Guises against the Protestants o Catherine’s main concern was the monarchy o She would use anyone and go against anyone in order to protect it
 Catherine had good reason to fear Coligny’s power over the king o Louis of Nassau was leader of Protestant resistance in Netherlands
 He convinced Coligny to convince the French king to invade Netherlands in order to support Dutch Protestants
 This would anger mighty Spain

Catherine realized war with Spain would be a disaster
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Catherine even gave her support for the Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre of Protestants o But she made this decision in panic

August 22, 1 572, 4 days after Huguenot Henry of Navarre married the king’s sister, Coligny was shot by an assassin (lost finger & shattered elbow) o Catherine was part of this plot by the Guises to kill Coligny
 After it failed, she worried what the king (& Coligny) would do
 Catherine convinced Charles that Huguenots were planning a coup
 And that executing Protestant leaders was only way to stop it

August 24, 1572 – St. Bartholomew’s Day – Coligny & 3000 Huguenots were butchered in Paris o Over next 3 days, 20,000 more Protestants were killed across France

Pope Gregory XIII held religious celebrations when he heard the news o Philip II of Spain was thrilled – no longer worried about having to stop French from helping his enemies in Netherlands

However, Catholics got nervous after this event o The fight between Catholics & Protestants was no longer battle between families in France
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o To Protestants, it became an international struggle for survival
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Only when Protestants faced suppression and defeat did they attempt active political resistance o At first, they tried to practice obedient subjection to authority (as it says to do in Bible) o 1550, Lutherans in Germany published defense of rights of lower authorities to resist emperor’s order that all Lutherans must return to Catholic Church o Calvin always condemned willful disobedience & rebellion as un-Christian
 But he also taught that lower authorities had right to oppose tyrants o John Knox argued that the removal of a tyrant was not only permitted, it was Christian duty
 After St. Bartholomew’s Day, Calvinists everywhere realized they needed to defend their rights o Huguenot theories of resistance appeared in 3 major works of time o All basically argued that tyrants could & should be overthrown
 Henry III was last of Henry II’s sons on French throne o Monarchy between rock & hard place – radical Catholic League (formed by Henry of Guise) & angry
Huguenots o Henry tried to keep the peace
 And he received support from many neutral Catholics & Huguenots

More concerned with France surviving politically than with religious bickering

The Peace of Beaulieu (1576) gave Huguenots total religious & civil freedom o But France wasn’t ready for such tolerance
 7 months later, Catholic League forced Henry to attempt to achieve religious unity in
France
 1577, Henry cancelled Peace of Beaulieu

From then on, Catholics & Huguenots went back to fighting o Protestants were led by Henry of Navarre
 Legal heir to French throne (descendant of Louis IX)

1580s, Catholic League dominated Paris o On the Day of the Barricades, Henry III tried to destroy the League with ambush
 Attack failed, forcing Henry III to flee from Paris
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Desperate, king had duke and cardinal of Guise assassinated o Led by another Guise brother, Catholic League retaliated o King had no choice – had to make alliance with Protestant Henry of Navarre in 1589
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While Henry III & Henry of Navarre were preparing to attack the Guise, Henry III was assassinated by angry Dominican friar o Henry of Navarre became next king of France – Henry IV
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Pope Sixtus V & Philip II terrified – France could become Protestant o Spain sent troops to help Catholic League o Philip II was even willing to put his oldest daughter – Isabella – on the French throne

Spanish intervention only helped Henry strengthen his claim to throne o French people cared more about Henry’s right to be on throne than his religion o He was also well-liked by everyone (especially soldiers)
 Down-to-earth, informal (in dress and manners), charming, funny
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He believed that tolerant Catholicism would achieve peace o 1593, Henry publicly abandoned Protestant faith & supported traditional religion of his country
 He supposedly said, “Paris is worth a Mass”

Huguenots were angry
 Pope Clement VIII didn’t believe Henry
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But most French people just wanted an end to all the fighting – so they believed him

By 1596, the wars of religion in France were over
 1598, Henry IV’s Edict of Nantes made a formal religious agreement o 1591, Henry had already told Huguenots they would receive at least some religious freedoms
 Edict of Nantes fulfilled that promise
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Recognized religious rights of minority (Protestant) in Catholic country
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The million Huguenots now had freedom of public worship, assembly, admission to public offices & colleges, and right to maintain fortified towns
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They must do so, however, in own towns and territories
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Edict of Nantes really only turned long hot war into long cold war o Henry IV assassinated 1610 (by Catholic)
 He’s most remembered for Edict of Nantes
 But also helped lay foundation for France’s later becoming an absolute state under Louis XIV

Louis would revoke the Edict of Nantes calling for one king, one law, one religion
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As a result, religious wars hit France again in 1685

Philip II of Spain was most powerful ruler in world until 1588 (English defeated Spanish Armada) o Philip was heir to the Catholic Habsburg throne
 His father – Charles V – had given eastern Habsburg lands of Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary to
Philip’s uncle – emperor Ferdinand I
 These lands belonged to Austrian branch of family up until 1918
 Philip’s home was in wealthy & populous Castile
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Regular shipments of gold and silver from colonies in New World made Philip even wealthier o King needed lots of money to pay bankers and mercenaries o But he never made up for debts of his father or to fully pay for his foreign affairs
 At his death, he would leave country even more in debt

Wealth from America brought social change to Europe o As Europe became richer, its population grew as well
 Population over 70 million by 1600 o High wealth + high population = inflation
 Prices rose 2% a year in most of Europe
 More people & more money in circulation
 But less food & less jobs available
 Wages stayed the same while prices skyrocketed
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Spain was hit worst by these economic problems o Because only few controlled this new money, gap between rich & poor grew o The peasants of Spain were most highly taxed people of Europe
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 Those who worked hardest to build Philip’s empire got the least out of it

Philip II organized weaker nobles into loyal & efficient bureaucracy o Philip was shy man – preferred to rule with written orders than in person o Also no stranger to sadness
 His son – Don Carlos – was insane & died under suspicious circumstances 3 months before Philip’s wife died (many suspect Philip had him killed)
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During 1 st part of Philip’s reign, he focused his attention on Mediterranean & Turkey
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Spain had histo rically been Catholic Europe’s main enemy against Islam o 1560s, Turks marched into Austria & controlled Mediterranean o 15681570, Philip’s armies under Don John of Austria (his half-brother) kicked Moors out of
Granada o 1571, alliance of Spain, Venice, Genoa , & pope (under Don John’s command) checked Turks in
Mediterranean o Largest naval battle of 1500s, Don John’s fleet fought Ottoman navy under Ali Pasha
 Over 1/3 of Turkish fleet sank or captured – 30,000 Turks dead
 Ottomans would soon rebuild their fleet & regain control of eastern Mediterranean o Philip also suppressed resistance of Portugal
 1580, Philip inherited throne of Portugal = stronger Spanish combined navy
 This union also brought Portugal’s colonies in Africa, India, & Brazil into Spanish empire
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Spanish military was not so successful in northern Europe o When Philip tried to push around England, France, & Netherlands, he was defeated o Dutch resistance would lead to ending of Spain’s attempt at world empire
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Netherlands was richest area of Europe o 1559, Philip left Netherlands to go back to Spain – he never returned
 His half sister – Margaret of Parma – ran Netherlands for him

She was helped by Antoine Perrenot, known as Cardinal Granvelle o He hoped to stop Protestant gains with church reforms
 He wanted to break down local governments of 17 provinces of Netherlands & set up one royal government in Madrid o Towns of Netherlands were very independent, however o Many were also largely Protestant o Most people of Netherlands preferred variety & toleration to conformity & hierarchy
 Spanish attempted to impose their rule by force

Two men organized resistance to them – Count of Egmont & William of Orange o Well-being of Netherlands was more important than religion to William o 1561, he married Anne of Saxony
 He practiced as Catholic until 1567 (turned Lutheran)
 After St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre, William became Calvinist
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1561, Cardinal Granvelle started his reorganization of the Netherlands o Trying to tighten control of Catholic Church & make it part of Spanish empire o Orange & Egmont, however, forced removal of Granvelle from office 1564
 But no one stepped up to run country
 People grew angrier (especially in cities among Calvinists)
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1564 saw first organize d opposition to Margaret’s rule o Resistance came from Philip’s attempt to impose Council of Trent (anti-Protestant rules) on
Netherlands o National agreement called the Compromise – promised to resist laws of Trent
 Margaret’s government called protesters “beggars” = led to riots by Calvinists
 Protestants called for support from French Huguenots & German Lutherans
 Full-scale rebellion against Spanish rule seemed close
 Rebellion never happened = high nobles of Netherlands wouldn’t back it o Philip wanted to make example of Protestant rebels
 He sent duke of Alba (& army of 10,000) to stop revolt
 Alba’s special council (Council of Blood) took control of area
 By end of this reign of terror, thousands of “heretics” were publicly executed (including
Count of Egmont) o Spanish passed new taxes – forced Netherlands to pay to stop their own revolt
 Tens of thousands of Dutch left Netherlands as result of Alba’s reign

William of Orange was in exile in Germany at this time o He now became leader of movement for independence of Netherlands o He used northern Netherlands (Holland & Utrecht) as his base

Revolt became quite popular o Example: Anti-Spanish group of exiles & criminals – “Sea Beggars” – started rebellions against
Alba in every town they visited o The Dutch even opened their dikes & flooded own country to stop Spanish o By this time, Alba had turned power over to Don Luis de Requesens
 Worst atrocity of war came after Requesen’s death in 1576 o Angry Spanish mercenaries (weren’t paid) killed 7000 people in Antwerp – Spanish Fury
 In response, the 10 Catholic provinces came together with the 7 Protestant provinces to oppose Spain
 This union – Pacification of Ghent – completed November 8, 1576
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Declared internal regional sovereignty in religious matters
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For next two years, Spain faced a unified Netherlands
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Don John, who destroyed Turks at Lepanto in 1571, had command over Spanish army by 1576 o He would now suffer his first defeat o Forced to sign the Perpetual Edict – all Spanish troops must leave Netherlands
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William of Orange took control of country o Philip’s hope of using Netherlands as springboard to invade England was destroyed

Spanish were not done with Netherlands though o Don John & Alexander Farnese (Margaret’s son) restored Spanish power in south (leaders there didn’t like Calvinist extremism)
 1579, southern provinces formed Union of Arras – made peace with Spain
 Northern provinces responded by forming Union of Utrecht
 To destroy Netherlands’ resistance, Philip II declared William of Orange an outlaw and put bounty (25,000 crowns) on his head o The act just made the northern provinces more determined
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William of Orange then publicly denounced Philip as a heathen tyrant who should not be obeyed o 1581, Union of Utrecht met & officially declared Philip was no longer their ruler o They turned to French duke of Alencon (youngest son of Catherine de Medicis)
 Alencon saw this as his chance for glory
 When he attempted to take control of provinces 1583, he was deposed & sent back to
France

Spanish continued trying to conquer Netherlands o 1584, William of Orange was assassinated o His son, Maurice (17 years old), with the help of England & France, continued Dutch resistance
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Now Philip decided to get involved in England & France o Signed secret treaty with Guises & sent armies (led by Alexander Farnese) into France 1590
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Problems with English also heated up o They gradually grew until 1588 when Philip’s Armada was defeated in the English Channel

Preoccupied with France & England, Spain could not worry about Netherlands anymore o All Spanish soldiers kicked out by 1593 o 1596, Netherlands formally became independent (recognized by England & France) o But peace with Spain not formal until 1609 (virtual independence)
 Not given full independence from Spain until 1648 (Peace of Westphalia)

Before Edward VI died, he agreed to make Lady Jane Grey his successor o She was daughter of wea lthy Protestant and granddaughter of Henry VIII’s sister, Mary o He had passed over the rightful heir, Catholic Mary Tudor (Mary I)
 People were angry that hereditary monarchy process not upheld
 Uprisings throughout England led to Lady Jane Grey’s removal and execution days after becoming queen

Once she came to power, Mary I frightened the Protestants o 1554, she married Philip II of Spain – a symbol of militant Catholicism to English Protestants o 1558, she followed his advice that would lose England’s last enclave on continent – Calais
 Mary’s domestic policies angered English people even more o During her reign, Parliament repealed Protestant laws and went back to the religious practices of her father – Henry VIII (Catholic) o Protestant leaders of the time – John Hooper, Hugh Latimer, & Thomas Cranmer – all executed for heresy
 In total, 287 Protestants burned at stake during Mary’s reign – where she earned nickname
“Bloody Mary”
 Many others fled the country
 These “Marian exiles” waited for time to launch Protestant uprisings in home country

Many of them held high positions in Church of England under Elizabeth I

Mary successor was her half sister – Elizabeth I (daughter of Henry VIII & Anne Boleyn) o Elizabeth had great & long-lasting success in domestic & foreign affairs o Aided by her adviser – Sir William Cecil

1559-1603, Elizabeth & Cecil got a religious settlement through Parliament that prevented her country from civil war o She blended broad Protestant laws with traditional Catholic rituals = Anglican Church
 1559, Parliament passed Act of Supremacy – overturned all of Mary’s anti-Protestant laws
 1559, Act of Uniformity also passed – every English parish must have revised version of second
Book of Common Prayer
 1563, Thirty-Nine Articles were issued

Made moderate Protestantism official religion within the Church of England
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
Elizabeth tried to stay in middle to avoid religious extremists

But she could not avoid them o When she came to power, Catholics were majority in England
 Catholic extremists – led by Jesuits – plotted against her o Spain worried as well
 Elizabeth was Protestant & she refused to marry Philip II

She deliberately remained unmarried – a political tactic to promise possibility of political marriage

Catholic extremists wanted to replace her with Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots o Mary actually had better claim to throne than Elizabeth
 Elizabeth was declared illegitimate
 Mary was granddaughter of Henry VIII’s sister, Margaret

Despite assassination plots and attempts by Catholics, Elizabeth never let emotion dictate her politics o In 45 years, she had less people executed for heresy than Mary I did in 5 years

She was cautious when it came to Puritans o They tried to purify church by making it less Catholic
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Puritans had two problems with Elizabeth: o 1. Keeping of Catholic ceremony and vestments in Church of England (made it “look” Catholic) o 2. Episcopal system of church governing – Elizabeth in charge of religion

These Puritans were not true separatists o They were popular o They worked with Parliament to create an alternative national church with congregations run by representative presbyteries (hence, Presbyterians)
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Elizabeth dealt with them firmly but carefully o Never gave them anything that might weaken her hold over Church of England

More extreme Puritans wanted every congregation to run itself – Congregationalists o Elizabeth refused to tolerate them
 Conventicle Act of 1593 gave Congregationalists choice: conform to Church of England or die (or be exiled)

Elizabeth & Philip II wanted to avoid war between England & Spain

But it was inevitable o 1567, Spanish duke of Alba attacked Netherlands
 England knew this was to be the jumping-off point for invasion of England o Pope Pius V – who favored invasion of England – had Elizabeth excommunicated for heresy
1570
 This encouraged international action against England o Two years later, the sea beggars (pirates from England) occupied port in Netherlands
 They encouraged locals to support war with Spain o After Don John’s impressive Spanish victory at sea at battle of Lepanto 1571, England signed alliance with France o Same time, Elizabeth’s seamen – John Hawkins & Sir Francis Drake – preyed on Spanish shipping regularly
 When Drake circumnavigated globe 15771580, it showed world strength of England’s navy o After St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre, Elizabeth was only monarch in Europe to protect
Protestants
 1585, she signed Treaty of Nonsuch – gave English soldiers & cavalry to Netherlands
 She also openly funded Henry of Navarre’s army in France
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 The spark that set off war was Elizabeth’s execution of Mary, Queen of Scots o Mary Stuart was daughter of King James V of Scotland & Mary of Guise o Lived in France since she was 6 o The French Catholic returned to Protestant Scotland after death of husband in 1561
 But Mary was hereditary heir to throne – Protestants did not intimidate her
 She established a French court culture – impressed many Protestants o Scottish reformer – John Knox – watched her closely
 He openly criticized her for her private Mass & other Catholic practices (illegal for all other Scots) o Elizabeth hated Knox (he published book against female rulers meant to start revolt against Mary
Tudor, but published year Elizabeth took throne) o But tolerated him because she knew he would never let Scotland become Catholic
 1567, Mary’s husband found dead (strangled) in garden o Soon after, she remarried (to his murderer) o People rose up against her, forced her to abdicate (to her one-year-old son, James VI) and imprisoned her in a castle

1568, Mary fled to cousin Elizabeth in England o Because of her claim to throne of England, Mary became symbol of possible Catholic England o She stayed in England (under house arrest) for 19 years (constantly worrying Elizabeth)
 1583, Elizabeth’s secretary – Sir Francis Walsingham – uncovered plot by Spanish ambassador to assassinate her o Anti-Catholic sentiment spread throughout England, France, & Netherlands

1586, Walsingham found out about another plot & evidence that Mary was in on it o Elizabeth knew that executing Mary would make her a martyr for Catholics o Nevertheless, to survive, Elizabeth ordered Mary’s execution 1587
 Catholic hopes of bloodless revolution were gone

Afterward, Pope Sixtus V openly supported Spanish invasion of England o Philip II ordered the Armada to get ready

1587, Sir Francis Drake shelled Spanish port of Cadiz – interrupting Spain’s preparation for war o Then he raided coast of Portugal, further slowing preparations
 He called it, “Singeing the beard of Spain’s king” o Spain forced to postpone invasion of England until 1588

In May, 130 ships with 25,000 sailors & soldiers set sail for England o In end, England won shocking victory
 Galleons meant to transport soldiers onto English shores never got chance to leave
Calais & Dunkirk
 Faster English & Netherlands’ ships (using the “English wind”) forced Armada to scatter
 1/3 of Spanish fleet would never return
 News of Armada’s defeat gave hope to Protestants everywhere

Spain never fully recovered from the defeat of its Armada o French soon dominated Europe while English & Dutch took over Spain’s overseas colonies o Elizabeth died 1603 – leaving behind a strong nation ready to create a global empire
 Thirty Years’ War was last & most destructive of wars of religion o Catholics had long hated Protestants o Calvinists had long hated Lutherans
 All that hatred came out in this war
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 And all sides were willing to sacrifice everything for their religious beliefs

When it ended in 1648, it shaped map of Europe to what we know it today

Late 1500s, Germany was made up of 360 independent political areas o Peace of Augsburg (1555) gave each of them sovereignty within their borders
 Each had its own tolls & taxes, had own money (making trade difficult)
 But Germany was always Europe’s highway for traders from all countries

Early 1600s, Germany was fragmented – not a unified nation like Spain, England, or France o But all German rulers did not want their rights taken away by being forced into Holy Roman
Empire
 Since 1300s, emperor had promised Germans constitutional rights
 Germans did not want to lose those rights

Religious conflict just made things worse o At time, population of Holy Roman Empire was divided – about half Catholic & half Protestant
 Peace of Augsburg (1555) attempted to freeze territorial holdings of Lutherans &
Catholics – ecclesiastical reservation
 Over time, Catholics took over Lutheran areas and Lutherans took over Catholic areas

Territorial reversals made both sides suspicious of each other o Catholics demanded that all Catholics who abandoned their side for the Protestant side should lose all of their holdings (according to the ecclesiastical reservation)
 Most Calvinists & Lutherans ignored this demand
 Liberal & conservative Lutherans also fought with one another (as did Lutherans &
Calvinists)

Peace of Augsburg did not recognize Calvinism as an official religion o But it gained attention when Frederick III – convert to Calvinism – became Elector Palatine (ruler in Palatinate) & made it official religion of his territory

Heidelberg became intellectual center of Calvinism (where it could spread to other parts of Germany) o By 1609, Palatinate Calvinists received support from Spain’s enemies – England, France, &
Netherlands
 Lutherans feared Calvinists almost as much as Catholics

They made missionary trips into rest of empire and openly criticized idea of transubstantiation

Catholics (Jesuits) were also active in empire o Catholic Bavaria (backed by Spain) was for the Counter-Reformation what Palatinate was for
Protestantism
 From Bavaria, Jesuits launched missions all over empire
 Turned several cities back to Catholicism

1609, Maximilian I (duke of Bavaria) organized Catholic League to fight new Protestant alliance under
Frederick IV (new Calvinist Elector Palatinate) o When league built a giant army (under command of Count Johann von Tilly), stage was set for
Thirty Years’ War

War went through 4 periods

Every major Western European country got involved
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
War broke out in Bohemia after Habsburg Ferdinand took Bohemian throne 1618 o He was also heir to imperial throne
 Ferdinand was die-hard Catholic
 He was determined to restore Catholicism in Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary

As soon as he took power, Ferdinand took away religious rights of Protestants o Protestant nobles in Prague responded by throwing Fer dinand’s regents out window of royal palace – “defenestration of Prague” (fell into dried up moat – survived because manure covered the ground)

Next year, Ferdinand became Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II o Bohemians defied him and declared Calvinist elector Palatinate, Frederick V, to be their king
 Revolt of Protestant nobles soon turned into international war

Spain sent troops to help Ferdinand

Maximilian of Bavaria & Lutheran John George I of Saxony also gave their support o Max. just wanted to become next Elector Palatinate o John George just wanted more land
 Ferdinand’s army (led by Tilly) destroyed Frederick V’s troops at Battle of White Mountain 1620 o By 1622, Ferdinand had made Bohemia Catholic again & conquered Palatinate o At same time, Maximilian advanced into NW Germany, claiming land as he went

Fear now spread that Catholicism would spread throughout empire o Lutheran king Christian IV of Denmark wanted to extend his influence in empire along coast of
North Sea o He opened Danish period of the war
 He entered Germany with his army in 1626
 But Maximilian quickly kicked him out & forced him back to Denmark

As Maximilian got stronger, Ferdinand did not trust him o So he sought a new ally – Albrecht of Wallenstein – strong mercenary
 Wallenstein was good military strategist – pushed Ferdinand’s campaign into Denmark
 By 1628, he led army of 100,000 men – but was out of emperor’s control

Wallenstein broke Protestant resistance so badly that Ferdinand was able to issue Edict of Restitution – reinstituting Catholic laws of the Peace of Augsburg o Reaffirmed Calvinism as illegal & ordered return of church lands taken by Lutherans
 This was unrealistic – would require return of 28 cities & towns to Catholic control

Protestants began to panic

Gustavus Adolphus II of Sweden (Lutheran) became new leader of Protestant forces, starting Swedish period o He was controlled by two forced:
 1. French minister, Cardinal Richelieu

Wanted to protect French interests by keeping Habsburg armies tied up in
Germany
 2. The Dutch

Swedish king won big victory at Breitenfeld 1630 – reversed war so much that it is known as the decisive battle of war o Swedish won battle because of military talents of Gustavus Adolphus
 He brought mobility to war by having infantry & cavalry use fire-and-charge tactics
 Infantry squares (6 men deep) were smaller than traditional (but filled them with equal # of musketeers & pikemen)
 Cavalry alternated pistol shots with sword charges
 Artillery was lighter (and more mobile) than opponent
 All parts of his army could quickly switch from offense to defense at will
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 Gustavus Adolphus died in battle with Wallenstein’s forces at Battle of Lützen 1632
 Ferdinand had long resented Wallenstein’s independence (even though he was major reason for success) o 1634, Ferdinand had Wallenstein assassinated
 Wallenstein had served his purpose (& opportunistically was trying to make deals with the
Protestants)
 Despite religious motivations of the war, it was all about greed & political gain

Peace of Prague 1635, German Protestant states (led by Saxony) compromised with Ferdinand o France & Netherlands continued to support Sweden o Their refusal to compromise plunged war into its final phase

French entered war 1635 (sending men, ammo, and money) o War then dragged on for 13 more years – French, Swedish, & Spanish soldiers looting Germany all the way
 Germans were too disunited to stop them

By time peace talks started 1644, war had killed 1/3 of German population o Many considered it worst European catastrophe since Black Death

Treaty of Westphalia 1648 ended all hostilities in Holy Roman Empire o It cancelled Ferdinand’s Edict of Restitution & brought back major part of Peace of Augsburg – ruler of land determines official religion o It gave Calvinists legal recognition o Independence of Swiss & Netherlands were now law o Bavaria became elector state – Brandenburg-Prussia became most powerful northern German state o Other German princes gained total control of their territories (French would continue to interfere, however)

Because Treaty broadened authority of Protestantism, pope opposed it

France & Spain remained at war until 1659 o French finally forced Treaty of the Pyrenees on Spanish o France now became Europe’s dominant country – Habsburg Spain never recovered
 By guaranteeing territorial sovereignty of Germany’s many areas, Treaty of Westphalia cemented German disunity & weakness into modern period o Only two German areas gained power in 1600s – Austria & Brandenburg-Prussia
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