Fiscal Policy and the
National Debt
Chapter 12
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2011 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Learning Objectives

After this chapter, you should be able to:
Analyze the recessionary and inflationary gaps.
2.
Calculate and apply the multiplier.
3.
List and discuss automatic stabilizers.
4.
Assess discretionary fiscal policy.
5.
Distinguish between budget deficits and surpluses.
6.
Discuss fiscal policy lags.
7.
Define and differentiate between the crowding-out and crowding-in
effects.
8.
Assess the success of fiscal policy measures in ending the Great
Recession.
9.
Discuss and analyze the national debt.
10. Explain why the recovery from the Great Recession will be
“jobless.”
11. Explain predictions for federal budget deficits in the future.
1.
12-2
Fiscal Policy

Definition: the manipulation of the federal budget to
attain price stability, relatively full employment, and a
satisfactory rate of economic growth.

Two sides to federal budget: Government spending
(outlays) and federal tax revenue.
•
•
•
Focus on level of Government spending (G), not how the
funds are allocated.
Focus on level of tax revenue (T), not using tax policy to
reward certain behavior (e.g., home ownership).
Both are responsibility of Congress and President.
12-3
Three Options for Fiscal Policy
Balanced Budget: G = T

•
Budget Deficit: G > T

•
•
Government spending is greater than tax revenue for the
fiscal year.
Government borrows difference by issuing Treasury bonds.
Budget Surplus: G < T

•

Government expenditures equal tax revenue for the fiscal
year.
Government spending is less than tax revenue for the fiscal
year.
Before Keynes, economists argued government
should always balance its budget. No active fiscal
policy.
12-4
Putting Fiscal Policy into Perspective



John Maynard Keynes invented fiscal policy.
Problem in Depression was inadequate Aggregate
Demand for output (real GDP).
Equilibrium stuck below full-employment level:
•
•
•
•

C stays low because consumers are unemployed or cutting back.
I stays low because businesses have low profit expectations and
no incentive to expand inventories or production.
The only component of AD that the government can control is G.
Increase G to increase AD.
Or, by cutting taxes (T), government can hope consumers and
businesses will spend additional income.
Running a budget deficit could jump-start the economy.
12-5
Modeling Fiscal Policy Using Aggregate
Expenditures

Equilibrium GDP tells us the level of spending in the
economy.
•

Full-employment GDP tells us the level of spending
necessary to reach full employment.
•
•

Level of output at which everything produced is sold (Aggregate
Demand equals Aggregate Supply).
If plant and equipment is operating at between 85 and 90% of
capacity, that’s considered full employment.
If approximately 5% of labor force is unemployed, that’s
considered full employment.
Fiscal policy is used to push equilibrium GDP toward
full-employment GDP.
12-6
Recessionary Gaps and Inflationary Gaps

Recessionary Gap occurs when equilibrium GDP is
less than full-employment GDP.
•
•

Inflationary Gap occurs when equilibrium GDP is
greater than full-employment GDP.
•
•
•

Inadequate Aggregate Demand (C + I + G + Xn)
Fiscal Policy solution is to run a budget deficit (raise G or lower
T).
Excess Aggregate Demand sparking inflation
“Too many dollars chasing too few goods.”
Fiscal Policy solution is to create a budget surplus (decrease
G or raise T).
Budget deficits are only appropriate during recessions.
12-7
Questions for Thought and Discussion

Which do you think is easier politically for members of
Congress and a President to do—raise taxes or lower
taxes?

Which do you think is easier politically for members of
Congress and a President to do—increase
government spending or cut government programs?

Given your answers, which is easier politically to do—
use fiscal policy to fight recessions or inflation?
12-8
Graphing a Recessionary Gap
When the fullemployment GDP is
greater than the
equilibrium GDP, there
is a recessionary gap.
How much is it?
$7 trillion – $6 trillion = $1 trillion
Note that the recessionary
gap is less than the gap in
output on the horizontal axis.
12-9
Graphing an Inflationary Gap
When the fullemployment GDP is
less than the
equilibrium GDP, there
is an inflationary gap.
How much is it?
$200 billion
Note that the inflationary
gap is less than the excess
output on the horizontal axis.
12-10
Summary of Graphs

Recessionary Gap:
•
•

Inflationary Gap:
•
•

Difference between full-employment GDP and equilibrium
GDP is $2 trillion.
Recessionary gap (inadequate spending) is $1 trillion.
Difference between full-employment GDP and equilibrium
GDP is $500 trillion.
Inflationary gap (excess spending) is $200 trillion.
Why is gap in spending less than gap in output?
•
Multiplier effects
12-11
The Multiplier and Its Applications

Any change in spending (C, I, or G) will set off a chain
reaction, leading to a multiplied change in GDP.
C + I + G + Xn
GDP
Size of multiplied change depends on MPC and MPS.
12-12
Calculating the Multiplier
Remember: MPC + MPS = 1, therefore, MPS = 1 – MPC
Multiplier =
Multiplier =
1
1 – MPC
1
MPS
12-13
Calculating the Multiplier
Find the multiplier.
The MPC is 0.5.
Multiplier =
1
1 - MPC
=
1
1 – .5
=
1
.5
12-14
How Does the Multiplier Work?

Suppose the government pays you $1,000 to write a
report as an economic consultant. The MPC in this
economy is 0.5 (or 50%).
•
•
•
•
•
•
You will spend $500 and save $500. Suppose you spend the
$500 on a laptop.
The seller of the laptop now has $500 in new income. The
laptop seller spends $250 and saves $250. Suppose she
spends the $250 on used text books.
The used bookseller now has $250 in new income, so he
spends $125 on concert tickets and saves $125.
The concert promoter now has $125 in new income, so she
spends $62.50 on a watch and saves $62.50.
The watch seller now has $62.50 in new income, so he
spends $31.25 buying gas and saves $31.25.
And so on…
12-15
Multiplier and MPC




If you add up all the rounds of spending ($1,000 + $500 +
$250, etc.), you would get $2,000.
Using the formula is quicker.
Question: As the MPC increases, what happens to the
multiplier?
Answer: It gets bigger!
•
•
•
Denominator is 1 – MPC.
If MPC increases, (1 – MPC) gets smaller.
Smaller denominator increases the number. (Hint: Compare ½
with 1/3.)
12-16
Applications of the Multiplier


The multiplier is used to calculate the impact of a
change in C, I, or G on GDP.
Formula:
GDPNew = GDPInitial + (Change in spending X Multiplier)
Example: GDP = 2,500; C rises by 10; Multiplier = 3
What is the new level of GDP?
GDPNew = 2500 + (10 x 3)
GDPNew = 2500 + (30)
GDPNew = 2530
Amount of increase in GDP
12-17
Applications of the Multiplier

Formula:
Change in GDP = (Change in spending X Multiplier)
Example: Multiplier = 7; G falls by $5 billion
How much will GDP decrease?
Change in GDP =  5 x 7
Change in GDP =  $35 billion
12-18
Removing the Recessionary Gap
To remove the deflationary
gap, raise AD from
C+I+G+Xn
to
C1+I1+G1+Xn1
This pushes equilibrium GDP
to $7 trillion (full-employment
GDP.
12-19
Removing the Inflationary Gap
To remove the
inflationary gap, lower
AD from
C+I+G+Xn
to
C1+I1+G1+Xn1
This pushes
equilibrium GDP
down to 1,000 and
removes the
inflationary gap.
12-20
Automatic Stabilizers:
(passively moderate business cycles)

Personal Income and Payroll Taxes
•
•

Personal Savings
•
•

During recessions, tax receipts decline.
During inflations, tax receipts rise.
During recessions, unemployed tend to use up their savings,
so we assume that saving declines. But sometimes saving
increases because consumer confidence decreases, so
those with jobs try to save more.
During prosperity, we would expect that saving rises. But
again, reality does not always follow the theory.
Credit Availability
•
•
Credit availability often helps get us through recessions,
enabling consumers to keep spending.
The Great Recession is different because one of its causes
was a credit crunch.
12-21
Automatic Stabilizers:
(passively moderate business cycles continued)

Unemployment Compensation
•
•
•

The Corporate Profits Tax
•

During recessions more people collect unemployment
benefits, putting a floor under purchasing power.
But only 40% of those out of work can quality for benefits in
the U.S., compared with 90% in Germany and 98% in
France.
The usual cap on US benefits is 26 weeks, much longer than
in Europe. During recessions, Congress may extend the
cap.
During economic boom, profits rise quickly but corporate
income taxes reduce the inflationary impact.
Other Transfer Payments
•
Welfare (or public assistance) payments, Medicaid
payments, and food stamps rise during recessions.
12-22
Automatic Stabilizers reduce, but do not
eliminate economic fluctuations.
12-23
Discretionary Fiscal Policy:
(under direction of Congress and President)

Making Automatic Stabilizers More Effective
•
•
•

Example: Extending unemployment benefits beyond 6
months.
Due to the Great Recession and the “jobless” recovery,
unemployment benefits were extended for as long as 79
weeks.
Corporate incomes taxes can be raised during periods of
inflation and lowered when recessions occur.
Public Works
•
New Deal programs built bridges, post offices, park trails, etc.
12-24
Discretionary Fiscal Policy:
(under direction of Congress and President continued)

Changes in Tax Rates
•
•

To fight inflation, the government can raise taxes.
 This may generate a budget surplus, or at least reduce the
deficit..
To fight recession, the government can cut taxes.
 This may increase the budget deficit.
Changes in Government Spending
•
•
To fight recession, increase government spending.
 This may increase the budget deficit.
To fight inflation, decrease government spending.
 This may generate a budget surplus.
12-25
U.S. Economic Growth Rate, 1871-2009
The U.S. economy has been more stable for most of the postwar period.
12-26
Questions for Thought and Discussion
Are public works projects a bad idea?
 Cons:
•
•

Public works projects are often labeled “pork barrel spending.”
Members of Congress negotiate to bring spending projects to
their local communities, even if it is wasteful. Some projects
make headlines, like “Bridge to Nowhere in Alaska.”
Pros:
•
•
Our roads, bridges, and other public infrastructure are
crumbling. We need new public investment.
“Green-collar jobs” is the idea that government should create
jobs that improve the environment.
12-27
Questions for Thought or Discussion
Is extending unemployment benefits a good idea?
 Cons:
•

Unemployment benefits may be a disincentive to looking for a
job.
Pros:
•
•
•
Extending benefits strengthens automatic stabilizers to maintain
Aggregate Demand.
People who are unemployed during a recession and jobless
recovery may not be able to find jobs through not fault of their
own.
Monetary incentives are only one reason to work. Many
unemployed would rather have a job than benefits anyway,
because jobs provide intrinsic rewards (like dignity, self-respect,
identity, and purpose).
12-28
Who Makes Fiscal Policy?

President submits budget to Congress.

Congress amends budget and passes individual
appropriation bills.
•

President can accept or veto.
•

Both House and Senate have to reconcile differences between
their versions.
If vetoed, Congress can try to override.
Fiscal Year begins October 1st.
12-29
Fiscal Policy Lags


Fiscal Policy takes time due to three types of lags (or
delays):
•
Recognition lag: Policy makers must identify that there is a
problem. (Recessions only declared after 6 months, at
minimum.)
•
Decision lag: President and Congress must agree on policy
approach and pass legislation.
•
Impact lag: It takes time for their actions to have effect.
Changing Aggregate Demand through fiscal policy is
more like navigating a super-tanker than driving a car.
12-30
Policy Lags and The Great Recession

President Bush used fiscal policy to stimulate the
economy in response to The Great Recession:
•
Recognition lag: Although there were strong signs of an
economic slowdown during Fall 2007, the Bush administration
and many members of Congress did not use the word “recession”
until the unemployment rate rose to 5.0% in January 2008.
•
Decision lag: The Bush administration and Congress took just a
few weeks to agree to a $168 billion economic stimulus package
that focused on taxpayer rebates (tax cuts).
•
Impact lag: The IRS did not mail out the rebates until May 2008.
And many people used the rebates to pay down det rather than
increasing spending. It was too small to have much of an impact.
12-31
The Economic Stimulus Package of 2009

President Obama passed a $787 billion stimulus package.
•
It included $287 billion in tax cuts and $500 in government spending.










•
$233 billion in tax cuts for individuals and families
$106 billion for education and job training, including aid to states to
prevent cutbacks and layoffs
$87 billion to states for increased Medicaid costs
$78 billion for programs for jobless workers
$48 billion for highway and bridge construction and mass transit
$44 billion for energy programs, modernization of electric grid
$41 billion for other infrastructure and environment projects
$29 gillion for health, science, and research
$21 billion for energy investments
$20 billion to expand food stamp benefits
By end of 2009, only 1/3 of funds had entered the economy.
12-32
Questions for Thought or Discussion

Was the 2009 Stimulus Package effective?
•
•
•

Was the deficit too big?
•
•

Great Recession ended during the summer.
 But the unemployment rate is still high.
It may have averted layoffs, especially by state and local
governments.
Additional funds spent in 2010 and 2011 may support more job
creation.
FY 2008 budget deficit was $459 billion.
FY 2009 budget deficit was $1.4 trillion.
 But it was only 9.8 percent of GDP.
 In 1944, the budget deficit was 24.5 percent of GDP.
How was the Chinese stimulus plan different?
12-33
The Deficit Dilemma
Discussion Question: How did the government get rid of deficits in the 1990s?
What led to the return of deficits after 2000? In 2009?
12-34
Why Are Large Deficits Bad?

Large deficits are problematic:
1.
2.
3.

Government borrowing pushes up interest rates.
Deficit is increasingly financed by foreign savers, giving U.S.
less control over financial markets.
Money used to invest in government bonds is not being used
to finance private sector investment.
Conclusion: We don’t need to balance the federal
budget every year, but deficit spending has limits.
12-35
Monetarists vs. Keynesians

Monetarists emphasize
“crowding out”

Keynesians emphasize
“crowding in”

Any expansionary impact of
budget deficits will be offset by
higher interest rates and
crowding out private sector
borrowing.

Stimulus of increased
government spending or tax
cuts will encourage
consumption and investment.

Go back to “Laissez-Faire”
policy of Classical economics!
 Government “primes the
pump” to get the private
sector growing again.
12-36
The Public Debt

Difference between Deficits and Debt
•
•

Deficits occurs when federal government spending is greater than
tax revenue in a single fiscal year.
Debt is the cumulative total of all the federal budget deficits less
any surpluses.
Example:
•
Suppose that our deficit declined one year from $200 billion to
$150 billion.
 The national debt would still go up by $150 billion.
 So every year that we have a deficit—even a declining one—
the national debt will go up.
12-37
Percentage of National Debt Publically Held
and Held by U.S. Government Agencies, 2010
12-38
The National Debt: 1980—2010
*Debt on January 1 of each year.
Portion held by US
government agencies
Portion held by public
Budget surpluses in 1990s led to decreases in public portion of debt.
Source: Economic Report of the President, 2010.
12-39
The U.S. National Debt as Percentage of
GDP, 1980—2010
Since 1980, our debt has doubled as a percentage of GDP.
12-40
When do we have to pay off the Public Debt?

We don’t. All we have to do is roll it over, or refinance
it, as it falls due.
•
•

Each year about $4 trillion dollars worth of federal securities
fall due.
By selling new ones, the Treasury keeps us going.
But even if we never pay back one penny of the debt,
our children and our grandchildren will have to pay
hundreds of billions of dollars in interest.
•
At least to that degree, the public debt will be a burden to
future generations.
•
But it will also be income to Americans, since we owe much of it to
ourselves.
12-41
Questions for Thought and Discussion

Baby Boomer retirements will increase outlays for
Social Security and Medicare. (Both programs now run
surpluses each year.)

What are the options to avoid massive budget deficits
when Boomers retire?
•
•
•
•
Raise payroll taxes or eliminate the earnings cap on social
security taxes to increase revenue (T).
Raise retirement age or cut benefits to reduce spending (G).
Combine both approaches.
Which would you recommend?
12-42