Fundamentals of Information
Systems
Fourth Edition
Chapter 2
Hardware and Software
Principles and Learning Objectives
• Information system users must work closely with
information system professionals to define
business needs, evaluate options, and select
the hardware and software that provide a costeffective solution to those needs
– Identify and discuss the role of the essential
hardware components of a computer system
– List and describe popular classes of computer
systems and discuss the role of each
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Principles and Learning Objectives
(continued)
• Systems and application software are critical in
helping individuals and organizations achieve
their goals
– Identify and briefly describe the functions of the
two basic kinds of software
– Outline the role of the operating system and
identify the features of several popular operating
systems
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Principles and Learning Objectives
(continued)
• Do not develop proprietary application software
unless doing so will meet a compelling business
need that can provide a competitive advantage
– Discuss how application software can support
personal, workgroup, and enterprise business
objectives
– Identify three basic approaches to developing
application software and discuss the pros and cons
of each
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Principles and Learning Objectives
(continued)
• Choose a programming language whose functional
characteristics are appropriate for the task at hand,
considering the skills and experience of the
programming staff
– Outline the overall evolution and importance of
programming languages and clearly differentiate
among the generations of programming languages
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Principles and Learning Objectives
(continued)
• The software industry continues to undergo
constant change; users need to be aware of recent
trends and issues to be effective in their business
and personal life
– Identify several key software issues and trends that
have an impact on organizations and individuals
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Why Learn About Hardware and
Software?
• Hardware can improve productivity, increase
revenue, reduce costs, and provide better service
• Managers are expected to know about hardware
– To help define business needs
– To ask questions and evaluate options when buying
equipment
• Software is indispensable for any computer system
• Systems software needed for input, calculations,
and output
• Application software aids in productivity
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Computer Systems: Integrating the
Power of Technology
• Choosing the right computer hardware requires
understanding its relationship to the information
system and needs of the organization
• Hardware objectives are subordinate to, but
supportive of, the information system and the
current and future needs of the organization
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Hardware Components
• Central processing unit (CPU)
– Arithmetic/logic unit (ALU): performs calculations
and makes logical comparisons
– Control unit: accesses, decodes and coordinates
data in CPU and other devices
• Primary memory: holds program instructions and
data for processing
• Secondary storage: more permanent storage
• Input and output devices
• Communications devices
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Hardware Components (continued)
Figure 2.1: Hardware Components
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Processing and Memory Devices:
Power, Speed, and Capacity
• System unit
– Houses the components responsible for processing
(the CPU and memory)
• All other computer system devices are linked either
directly or indirectly into the system unit housing
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Processing Characteristics and
Functions
• Clock speed: series of electronic pulses produced
at a predetermined rate that affects machine cycle
time
– Clock speed is often measured in megahertz (MHz),
or millions of cycles per second
– Clock speed for personal computers is in the multiple
gigahertz (GHz), or billions of cycles per second,
range
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Processing Characteristics and
Functions (continued)
• Physical characteristics of the CPU
– Digital circuits on chips
– To turn a digital circuit on or off, electrical current
flows through silicon
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Memory Characteristics and
Functions: Storage Capacity
Table 2.1: Units for Measuring Computer Storage
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Memory Characteristics and
Functions: Types of Memory
• Random access memory (RAM)
– Temporary
– Volatile
• Read-only memory (ROM)
– Usually nonvolatile
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Multiprocessing
• Multiprocessing: simultaneous execution of
two or more instructions
– Multicore microprocessor: shares workload
among two or more independent processors in a
single computer
– Parallel processing: links several processors to
operate at the same time, or in parallel
– Grid computing: collection of computers
working to solve a common problem
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Secondary Storage and Input and
Output Devices
• Secondary storage
– Also called permanent storage
– Nonvolatile
– Greater capacity and greater economy than memory
• Access methods, storage capacities, and portability
required are determined by the information
system’s objectives
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Access Methods
• Sequential access: data must be accessed in the
order in which it is stored
– Sequential access storage devices (SASDs)
• Direct access: data can be retrieved in any order
– Direct access storage devices (DASDs)
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Secondary Storage Devices
• Magnetic tapes
– Secondary storage used primarily for backups
• Magnetic disks
– Direct access secondary storage, e.g., hard disk
• RAID
– Stores extra bits so that data can be reconstructed if
system fails
• SAN
– Provides high-speed connections between data
storage devices and computers over a network
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Secondary Storage Devices
(continued)
• Optical disks
– Direct access optical disc, e.g., CD-ROM
• Digital video disk (DVD)
– Stores several gigabytes of data
• Flash memory
– Nonvolatile silicon computer chip
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Input Devices
• Personal computer input devices
– Keyboard, mouse
• Speech-recognition technology
– Input devices that recognize human speech
• Digital cameras
– Input device used with PC to record/store images in
digital form
• Terminals
– Input and display devices that perform data entry
and input at the same time
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Input Devices (continued)
• Touch-sensitive screens
– Allow display screens to act as input devices as well
as output devices
• Bar-code scanners
– Employs a laser scanner to read a bar-coded label
• Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR) devices
– Code data on banking forms, such as checks
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Input Devices (continued)
• Pen input devices
– Activate a command, enter handwritten notes, and
draw objects
• Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)
– Employs a microchip with an antenna to broadcast
its unique identifier and location to a receiver
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Output Devices
• Display monitors (CRTs)
– Output quality measured by number of pixels and
dot pitch
• Liquid crystal displays (LCDs)
– Easier on eyes, use less electricity, take up less
space than CRTs
• Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs)
– Directly emits light rather than using backlight
– Sharper colors and thinner displays
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Output Devices (continued)
• Printers and plotters: hard copy output
– Printers: laser, inkjet
– Plotters: used for general design work
• Digital audio player
– Stores, organizes, and plays digital music files
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Computer System Types
Table 2.3: Types of Computer Systems
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Overview of Software
• Computer programs: sequences of
instructions for the computer
• Documentation: describes program functions
• Systems software: coordinates the activities of
hardware and programs
• Application software: helps users solve
particular problems
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Supporting Individual, Group, and
Organizational Goals
• Sphere of influence: the scope of problems and
opportunities addressed by a particular
organization
– Personal
– Workgroup
– Enterprise
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Supporting Individual, Group, and
Organizational Goals (continued)
Table 2.4: Classifying Software by Type and Sphere of Influence
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Systems Software
• Controlling operations of computer hardware is one
of the most critical functions of systems software
• Also supports application programs’ problemsolving capabilities
• Different types of systems software include:
– Operating systems
– Utility programs
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Operating Systems
• Operating system (OS): programs that control the
hardware and interface with applications
• Common hardware functions
– Get input (e.g., keyboard)
– Retrieve data from disks and store data on disks
– Display information on a monitor or printer
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Operating Systems (continued)
• Combinations of OSs, computers, and users:
–
–
–
–
Single computer with a single user
Single computer with multiple users
Multiple computers
Special-purpose computers
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Operating Systems (continued)
Figure 2.8: The Role of Systems Software
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Operating Systems (continued)
• Activities performed by the operating system
– Perform common computer hardware functions
– Provide a user interface and input/output
management
– Provide a degree of hardware independence
– Manage system memory
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Operating Systems (continued)
• Activities performed by the operating system
(continued)
–
–
–
–
Manage processing tasks
Provide networking capability
Control access to system resources
Manage files
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Operating Systems (continued)
• Common hardware functions
–
–
–
–
Get input from keyboard or some other input device
Retrieve data from disks
Store data on disks
Display information on a monitor or printer
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Operating Systems (continued)
• User interface
– Allows individuals to access and command the
computer system
– Command-based user interface: uses text
commands
– Graphical user interface (GUI): uses icons and
menus to send commands to the computer system
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Operating Systems (continued)
• Hardware independence
– Application program interface (API): allows
applications to make use of the operating system
• Memory management
– Converts a user’s request for data or instructions to
the physical location where the data or instructions
are stored
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Operating Systems (continued)
Figure 2.9: Application Program Interface Links Application Software to
the Operating System
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Operating Systems (continued)
• Processing tasks
– Multitasking: more than one program running at the
same time
– Time-sharing: more than one person using a
computer system at the same time
– Scalability: ability to handle an increasing number
of concurrent users smoothly
• Networking capability: aids users in connecting to a
computer network
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Operating Systems (continued)
• Access to system resources
– Protection against unauthorized access
– Logins and passwords
• File management
– Ensures that files in secondary storage are:
• Available when needed
• Protected from access by unauthorized users
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Current Operating Systems
Table 2.5: Popular Operating Systems Across All Three Spheres of Influence
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Current Operating Systems
(continued)
• Microsoft PC operating systems
– PC-DOS and MS-DOS: early, command-driven OSs
– Windows XP: greatly improved stability and security
over previous versions of Windows
– Windows XP N: for European market
– Windows XP Professional X64: for computers with
newer 64-bit capabilities
– Windows XP Media Center Edition: incorporates
additional multimedia features
– Vista: latest version of Windows
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Current Operating Systems
(continued)
• Apple operating systems
– Often provides cutting edge tools in graphics and
music not available from Microsoft
– Mac OS X
• Jaguar (OS X.2)
• Panther (OS X.3)
• Tiger (OS X.4): support for 64-bit computing,
Dashboard, Spotlight, etc.
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Current Operating Systems
(continued)
• Linux
–
–
–
–
Developed by Linus Torvalds in 1991
Open-source product
Only the kernel of an OS
Several distributions available with
capabilities/applications that form a complete OS
• Examples: Red Hat Linux, Caldera OpenLinux
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Workgroup Operating Systems
•
•
•
•
•
Windows Server
UNIX
NetWare
Red Hat Linux
Mac OS X Server
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Enterprise Operating Systems
• z/OS
• MPE/iX and HP-UX
• Linux
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Operating Systems for Small
Computers, Embedded
Computers, and Special-Purpose
Devices
• Palm OS
• Windows Embedded
• Windows Mobile
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Application Software
• Give users the ability to solve problems and
perform specific tasks
• Interact with systems software; systems software
then directs the hardware to perform tasks
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Types and Functions of Application
Software
• Proprietary software: unique program for a
specific application, usually developed and owned
by a single company
• Off-the-shelf software: existing software program
that can be purchased
• Customized package
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Types and Functions of Application
Software (continued)
Figure 2.13: Types of Application Software
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Types and Functions of Application
Software (continued)
Table 2.6: A Comparison of Proprietary and Off-the-Shelf Software
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Types and Functions of Application
Software (continued)
Table 2.6: A Comparison of Proprietary and Off-the-Shelf Software
(continued)
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Personal Application Software
• Serves the needs of an individual user
• Includes personal productivity software
– Enables users to improve their personal
effectiveness
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Personal Application Software
(continued)
Table 2.7: Examples of Personal Productivity Software
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Personal Application Software
(continued)
Table 2.7: Examples of Personal Productivity Software (continued)
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Personal Application Software
(continued)
• Software suite: collection of single application
programs packaged in a bundle
– Microsoft Office: most popular general-purpose
software suite
– Other general-purpose software suites: Corel’s
WordPerfect Office, Lotus SmartSuite, Sun
Microsystems’s StarOffice
• Integrated application packages: offer a range of
capabilities for less money than software suites
– Example: Microsoft Works
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Personal Application Software
(continued)
Table 2.8: Major Components of Leading Software Suites
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Workgroup Application Software
• Workgroup application software: support
teamwork, whether people are in the same location
or dispersed around the world
• Groupware: software that helps groups of people
work together more efficiently and effectively
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Workgroup Application Software
(continued)
Table 2.9: Ernst & Young’s “Three Cs” Rule for Groupware
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Enterprise Application Software
• Software that benefits an entire organization
• Enterprise resource planning (ERP) software:
programs that manage a company’s vital business
operations for an entire multisite, global
organization
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Enterprise Application Software
(continued)
Table 2.10: Examples of Enterprise Application Software
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Application Software for Information,
Decision Support,
and Specialized Purposes
• Used in businesses of all sizes and types to
increase profits or reduce costs
• Available in every industry
– Example: analysis to increase the cure rate for
cancer
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Programming Languages
• Sets of keywords, symbols, and a system of rules
for constructing statements
• Allow humans to communicate instructions to be
executed by a computer
• Syntax: a set of rules associated with a
programming language
• Different languages have characteristics that make
them appropriate for particular types of applications
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Programming Languages (continued)
Table 2.11: The Evolution of Programming Languages
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Software Issues and Trends
• Software issues and trends receiving increasing
attention
–
–
–
–
Software bugs
Copyrights and licenses
Software upgrades
Global software support
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Software Bugs
• Software bug: defect in a computer program that
keeps it from performing as it is designed to
perform
• Tips for reducing impact of software bugs include:
– Register all software so that you can receive bug
alerts, fixes, and patches
– Check the manual or read-me files for work-arounds
– Access support area of the manufacturer’s Web site
for patches
– Install the latest software updates
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Copyrights and Licenses
• Most software products are protected by law using
copyright or licensing provisions
– In some cases, you are given unlimited use of
software on one or two computers
– In other cases, you pay for your usage—if you use
the software more, you pay more
• Some software now requires that you register or
activate it before it can be fully used
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Software Upgrades
• Software companies periodically revise their
programs and sell new versions
• Revised software
– May offer new and valuable enhancements
– May just contain complex program code changes
that offer little in terms of additional capabilities
• Software upgrades usually cost much less than the
original purchase price
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Global Software Support
• For large, global companies, getting adequate
software support at all their locations for their
standardized, companywide systems is a big
challenge
• Large vendors such as Sybase, IBM, and HewlettPackard typically contract out support for their
software to local providers
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Summary
• Hardware: central processing unit (CPU), input and
output devices, communications devices, primary
storage devices, and secondary storage devices
• Random access memory (RAM): temporary and
volatile
• Read-only memory (ROM): usually nonvolatile
• Multiprocessing: simultaneous execution of two or
more instructions
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Summary (continued)
• Sequential access: records retrieved in order
• Direct access: records retrieved in any order
• Computer programs: sequences of instructions for
the computer
• Systems software: coordinates the activities of
hardware and programs
• Application software: helps users solve problems
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Summary (continued)
• Operating system (OS): set of computer programs
that control the hardware and interface with
applications
• Graphical user interface (GUI): uses icons and
menus to send commands to the computer system
• Programming languages: allow humans to
communicate instructions to be executed by a
computer
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