Sports Psychology
Personality
Personality TIPS!
• Make sure you learn the specific definition of
personality!
• Have awareness of the links between
personality and sports performance.
• It is important to understand the NATURE
(trait) V NURTURE (social learning) and
interactionist perspectives of behaviour.
• Learn the strengths and weaknesses of each
perspective.
• Be aware of the problems associated with the
use of personality profiling in sport.
Personality
• What is personality?
– Write down your own definition.
• How do you think our personalities are
formed?
• Who do you think influences our
personality?
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IvvKUtHlDK8
Personality
“The sum total of an individuals
characteristics which make him
unique” (Hollander).
“Personality is the more or less stable and
enduring organisation of a persons character,
temperament, intellect and physique which
determines the unique adjustment to the
environment” (Eysenck).
Personality Theory
• Trait Theory
• Social Learning Theory
• Interactionist Approach
• Hollander’s Structure
Trait Theory
“People are born with established personality
characteristics”
Inherited at birth.
Stable
Enduring
consistent in all situations.
Attempts to predict
behaviour
BEHAVIOUR = FUNCTION OF PERSONALITY
+ve = Can be easily measured through questionnaires
-ve = Does not take into account environmental
influences. It is not a true indicator of behaviour.
CATTELL (1965) identified 16 personality traits
INTROVERT & EXTROVERT
Personality Types
TRAITS
INTROVERT
Shy, timid,
reserved, aloof,
self sufficient
EXTROVERT
Adventurous,
confident,
Sociable,
Group dependent,
enthusiastic
NARROW BAND APPROACH,
GIRDANO, 1990
TYPE ‘A’
Highly competitive,
Strong desire to succeed,
Works fast, likes to control,
Prone to suffer stress
TYPE ‘B’
Non-competitive,
Unambitious,
Works more slowly,
Does not enjoy control
Less prone to stress
Eysenck’s Trait Theory
Extrovert (likes
social affiliation)
Stable
(reliable/predictable)
Neurotic (extreme
emotions/unreliable)
Introvert (avoids
social contact)
Extroverts
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Said to achieve more in higher arousal situations.
Prefer team oriented situations.
Like activities which involve gross motor skills.
Prefer activities which are less continuous
eg.marathon could be demotivating & become
bored.
• Extrovert behaviour is loud, bright & outgoing.
Introverts
• High levels of excitation.
• Tend not to need added stimulation &
excitement.
• Prefer to take part in activities requiring
more precision eg. Archery.
• Introvert behaviour is shy, quiet & reserved.
Stable/Neurotics
• Stable behaviour is consistent.
• Neurotic behaviour is extreme, varied &
anxious.
Task
• Do you agree that people with certain
personality characteristics are more suited
to taking part in certain sports? Why/Why
not?
• Can you think of 2 people in the same sport
that have similar characteristics?
• Think of 2 people in the same sport with
contrasting personalities.
Social Learning Theory
• States that behaviour changes with the
situation.
• Rather than being born with characteristics,
we learn them from other people, especially
those we hold in high esteem
– eg significant others such as role models,
friends & parents
Social Learning Theory
• We are more likely to learn reinforced
behaviour - why?
• We learn our behaviour by the following
process:
• observe
identify
reinforce
• We observe others & copy them.
• We can also learn from experience.
copy
• -ve = Does not consider inherited behaviour
(traits)
Interactionist Approach
• Combines trait theory & social learning
theory.
• Suggests that we base behaviour on inherent
traits that we then adapt to the situation we
are in.
• Behaviour changes with the situation
B = f (PE), where behaviour is a function of
personality & environment.
Interactionist Approach
• Example:
• a games player might be loud, extrovert &
dominant manner in the game because that
is the best way to succeed, but would be
more quiet & focused when in a training
session designed to improve individual
technique.
Personality- with your partner…
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Define personality
Explain the trait theory of personality
Explain the social learning theory
Explain the interactionalist approach
Stretch & Challenge
• Hollander suggested a model to explain
personality- can you explain this model?
Hollander’s Structure of Personality
Social Environment
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1
3
The boundary line of each layer gets wider as
you get closer to the centre of the model
which shows that each layer is harder to enter.
As you move closer to the centre, your ‘real’
personality begins to surface.
Hollander’s Structure
• 1 = The Psychological Core:
– The ‘real you’.
• 2 = Typical Responses:
– Usual way we respond to the environment.
– Learned & stored experience.
– Responses may indicate the nature of the core.
• 3 = Role-related behaviour:
– Determined by our perception of env at any given time.
– Can be changed at any time
– Action may not be a typical response but uncharacteristic
action.
Can we measure personality?
• Difficult- no clear definition!
• Questionnaire; interview; observation
• Measurement error
WHY? Good to predict who will drop out of
sport, but also good for talent identification
Questionnaires
Advantages
Disadvantages
Easy to administer
Validity? No definition of
personality
Data collection
Responses affected by mood,
attitude etc
Large numbers
May lie
Quick
Not understand
Yes/no too limited
Ethics
Self Report Questionnaires
• Eysencks personality inventory (EPI)
• SCAT, STAI (sport related objectives)
• Profile of Mood States
Profile of Mood States
Profile of Mood States
• Personality of performer changes from
moment to moment
• Mood states more useful in identifying elite
athletes
• Seen as best predictor of performance and
behaviour
Profile of Mood States
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Successful athletes scored higher
on anger and vigour but score lower
on depression, fatigue, and
confusion.
Unsuccessful athletes score equally
across all mood states.
In other words, the elite athletes
score higher on the positive mood of
vigour and lower on the negative
moods of depression, fatigue, and
confusion.
Suggestion that the absence of an
iceberg is an indication that
something is wrong
– E.g. overtrained swimmers
showed lower than expected
scores on vigour and higher
scores on fatigue, depression,
and confusion.
Problems?
• The main problem is that these results can
be assumed for ALL athletes.
• Not all elite performers show an iceberg
profile.
• Could suggest that by becoming successful
athletes, the elite performers acquire selfconfidence and ‘feel-good’ factors that lead
them to develop positive mood states.
A coach will often try to pair players with
compatible personalities to form a successful
double partnership
• What do you understand by Profile of Mood
States? (3)
Observations
• Observed over time and a personality
profile compiled
• Time consuming
• Subjective
Personality and Sporting
Performance
• Is there a link?
• Can questionnaires be used to predict this?
Credulous Vs Sceptical
approach
Credulous Approach
• Although there is a link between personality
research and performance in sport, there is
lack of evidence to support this.
• Personality traits linked to specific types of
sports. Eg calm under pressure
• Used as talent identification
• Iceberg profile
• Linked to high levels of vigour
Sceptical Approach
• Evidence is too general – personality alone
can not predict behaviour.
• No clear link between sport and personality
type- Choice of sport
• Research often contradicts each other
• Personality can change due to situation
In conclusion??
• Neither approach has been proved
conclusive/ no evidence to make accurate
predictions!!
Imagine that you are taking an exam. The exam has negative
marking (if you get a question wrong you lose marks). After
20 mins you find you have done all of the questions you knew
the answers to or could make an intelligent guess at.
There are 10 questions left what would you do?
A) Answer the 10 questions and risk losing the marks?
B) Sit safely and have a rest?
Are you a nAch OR a Naf???
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=45mMioJ5szc
• England are in the world cup final (go with
it!) it has come down to penalties….
A worldwide audience is watching, the crowd
is going wild…
Do you step up?
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=45mMioJ5szc
Achievement Motivation
Achievement Motivation is a concept developed by
sports psychologists to link PERSONALITY and
COMPETITIVENESS.
The major issue centres on the extent to which
an INDIVIDUAL IS MOTIVATED TO ATTAIN
SUCCESS.
Success in sport is measured against some type
of COMPETITIVE GOAL.
Atkinson & McClelland (1976) –
Interactionist View
In any challenging situation, everyone will
have both a ‘need to achieve’ and a ‘need to
avoid failure’. Whichever feeling is stronger
will determine whether the task is accepted
or declined.
Competitive orientation is generated
through personality and situational factors
• Need to Achieve (n.Ach)
• Motive to succeed
• Need to Avoid Failure (Naf)
• Motive to avoid failure
• Interactionist approach
n.Ach
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Sense of pride and satisfaction from competing
Perseverance
Like feedback
Optimism
Confident
Like 50/50 situations
Approach behaviour
Task persistence
Take responsibility for their own actions
Attribute performance to internal factors
Takes risks and challenges
Like being evaluated
Don’t mind if they fail- see it as a learning experience
Naf
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Attempt to avoid shame and humiliation
Worry about failure
Avoid situations with a 50-50 chance of success
Chose tasks that are easy or very heard
Don’t like feedback
Attribute performance to external feedback
Performance worsens if evaluated
Give up easily
Avoidance behaviour
• When faced with a competitive situation we
make a decision based on our relative
strengths of each aspect of personality
Achievement motivation=
desire to succeed- fear of failure
• A club standard tennis player with a motive to
achieve is given the opportunity to play some
one of a similar standard or better ability.
They will rise to the challenge and use the
experience he may gain irrespective of the
result. However, a player with a motive to
avoid failure will tend to choose opponent who
is better or worse then them, because they are
not expected to win, or should do easily. As a
result the outcome will not be a reflection of
the players ability.
• Our level of achievement motivation is a
combination of personality and evaluation
of the situational factors.
• Evaluation assesses two aspects:
1. Probability of success
2. Incentive value of the success (feelings of
pride or shame following the task)
What can the coach do to
encourage a need to achieve???
Development of Approach Behaviour
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As a coach you want a player with a high level of achievement motivation.
Reducing punishment and negative feelings
Gradually increasing the task difficulty but ensuring challenging tasks still
set
Raising levels of self efficacy- avoiding learned helplessness
Set goals that are achievable
Re attribute
Praise from significant other
Encourage feelings of pride and satisfaction through success.
Ensure that at least some situations guarantee early success
and subsequently gradually increase task difficulty in line with progress
Ensure that the probability of success is good
Ensure that the incentive value of the success is high (is the race worth
winning?)
Reduce tendency and motive to
avoid failure (naf)
• Reduce punishment hence lowering the chance of performer worrying
about failure.
• Focus negative feedback on effort rather than ability. This avoids the
performer tending to believe that causes of failure are internal (due to
lack of ability for example) and reduces the risk of learned
helplessness.
• Avoid situations where defeat / failure is inevitable (such as
performing against a much superior opponent) if this is not possible
alter the criteria for success (you will have succeeded if you only
lose by 2 goals).