Developing Grammar Consciousness-raising
through Task-based Language Teaching
Farida ABDERRAHIM
University of Constantine , ALGERIA
farida_abderrahim@hotmail.com
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Outline
 Place of grammar in language teaching .
 Rationale for Consciousness-raising (CR) .
 Principles of Task-based Language
Teaching(TBLT).
 GCRTs in EFL at university level .
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Place of Grammar
in Language Teaching
 Grammar has always fascinated
theorists and practitioners in the field of education.
 On the whole, except for the Communicative Approach
where language use is believed to lead to the command of
the target language ,
 agreement that the grammatical component
should not be neglected ,
 need for learning the code and practising it in a systematic
manner in order to achieve linguistic proficiency .
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 Agreement also that grammatical errors are a natural phenomenon
reflecting restructuring ,
replacing ,
readjusting ,
developing communicative strategies .
 As to FL learning , the context of our paper, it has been found to be
determined by :
exposure to comprehensible input ,
attitude , motivation ,
interaction , cognitive processes .
 So , grammar pedagogy has to take into account the sound findings of :
Linguistics ,
Psycholinguistics ,
Sociolinguistics ,
Neurolinguistics ,
Cognitive Psychology .
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The Consciousness-raising Approach
 One development of these related disciplines is CR
a cognitive approach to grammatical instruction developed by
Sharwood-Smith ( 1981 ) .
 Compatible with research findings related to how learners
acquire second / foreign language grammar .
 A learner-centered orientation, with emphasis on :
learning processes and strategies where the learners rely on
their intellectual capacities and use their cognitive modes to learning :
the most important one being noticing leading to
awareness about the use of a language structure .
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 Aspects of grammar are focused on ,
without necessarily using
explicit rules or technical jargon
to help learners discover the rules by themselves .
 CR has proved to be useful at an initial stage of acquisition ,
the stage of controlled processing ,
to trigger the declarative knowledge,
paving the way gradually to the procedural knowledge
when learners attend to content rather than form
(Ellis 2003).
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Task-based Language Teaching
 A curriculum is viewed as a collection of academic tasks specifying :
1. the products students are to formulate ,
2. the operations required to generate the product ,
3. the ressources available to the students to generate the product .
( Doyle 1979, 1983 ,reported by Nunan 1988)
 Starting from this view, other researchers, (eg. Richards, Platt and Weber 1985,
Candlin 1987, Nunan 1989,Long 1989, Robinson 1995, Willis 1996)
have specified the various aspects of a task ,
stressed the meaning - primacy interactions to solve a
communicative problem comparable with real world activities with an
outcome ,
argued that optimum conditions for communicative
development lead to interlanguage development ,
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A task has :
 a goal : the general purpose of the task,

an input : verbal or non-verbal information supplied by the task,

conditions : the way in which information is presented ,
procedure : the method followed in performing the task,
predicted outcomes : the product . ( Ellis 2003 )


A task with the above characteristics , can be :
 an information-gap activity involving a transfer of given information
from one learner to another ;

a reasoning-gap activity involving the discovery of new information
through inference , deduction or perception of relationships or patterns;
 or an opinion-gap activity involving a response to a given information .
(Prabhu 1987)
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In this context , form (structure) has to be :
 Natural : the use of a structure during a task does not stand out .
 Useful : the use of a structure helps in completing the task .

Essential : a structure has to be used in order to complete a task .
(Loschly and Bley-Vroman 1993)
Focus on form can be :
 Proactive : the choice of the form is made in advance : when we design the
task , we ensure that opportunities to use problematic forms
while communicating a message will arise ;
 or Reactive: the learners notice and are prepared to handle various learning
difficulties as they arise . (Doughty and Williams 1998)
However , there is a reaction to this view which stipulates that :
language aspects that are not salient may go unnoticed .
( Long 1991 , Schmidt 1990 )
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Two major TB models :
Willis (1996) :
 The pre-task activities which aim at activating
the schematic knowledge ,
what is likely to make the task authentic
and providing opportunity for a focus on form and noticing .
 The task stage which stresses the form-meaning relationship
providing opportunity for language use
and the development of accuracy, fluency and complexity,
contributing to the proceduralisation of language .
 The language focus stage with CR activities requiring learners
to process input in a way which makes features more salient
and aiming at getting the learners to identify and think about particular
features of language form and use at their own time .
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Skehan (1998)
developed an information-processing approach where the tasks :
 cover a wide range of structures ;
 are selected on the basis of the utility criterion ;
 are selected and sequenced in such a way as to achieve
a balanced development of
accuracy ,
fluency
and complexity ;
 offer maximum chances of focus on form through :
manipulation ,
reflection
and awareness .
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Grammar Consciousness-raising Tasks

It is possible to integrate the teaching of grammar with opportunities for
communication, exchange of information in
grammar tasks
students solve interactively in order to formulate :

the implicit knowledge : intuitive and procedural knowledge,

and the explicit knowledge : the knowledge we learn , which when
linked with opportunities for natural communication ,
helps to provide more rapid second language acquisition .
( Long 1988 , and Ellis 1990 )
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These tasks provide opportunities
 to practise forms that have been first presented declaratively
 and to receive feedback on the mistakes under real conditions .
They are information-gap activities : they



promote communication about grammar ,
raise the learners’ consciousness about the grammatical
characteristics of the language ,
require the exchange of information in order to reach an
agreed solution to a problem .
(Ellis 2003)
 Fotos and Ellis (1991) and Fotos (1994) showed that grammar tasks
(with task sheet and task cards)produced significant gains
in the understanding of the targeted structure .
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Our Study :
First Year EFL University Students
Are GCRTs effective
 for developing grammatical accuracy

and promoting grammatical explicit knowledge of English tenses ?
Why tenses ?
1.


Problematic area : The students are confused by :
the various tenses in their simple and continuous forms ,
and in their perfective aspects ,
and by the complexity of the uses of each tense .
2.
The students often ask for rules to make them become aware of the
use of the tenses, and consequently use them correctly.
3.


Mistakes made require ,
formal instruction
and CR activities to make the learners achieve an accurate use of the
tenses in an appropriate context of communication .
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Comparison of the results of two groups
 One : TTFGLS (traditional grammar teaching and written practice).
 One : GCRTs consisting of :
information-gap activities : the students complete a given input ,
reasoning-gap activities : the students induce the rules
underlying the given sentences ,
and decision-making activities : the students reach a
negotiated decision .
 The tasks are designed in conformity with the task components explained
earlier.
Goals : the tasks are expected to :
1. raise the students’ consciousness about the English tenses ;
2. help them gain grammatical explicit knowledge of this aspect ;
3. promote their grammatical accuracy;
4. provide them with opportunities to interact , communicate and
negotiate meaning to improve fluency and achieve implicit knowledge ;
5. enhance their autonomy , self-confidence and motivation .
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Input
A Task sheet , Task cards and Task directions .
Example : The Present Simple ( Pr.S )
A Task sheet consisting of :
 Form : the 4 forms of the Pr.S to be completed ,
 Use : the 4 uses of the Pr.S have to be identified in a series of 4 sentences
included in the 4 task cards .
Task cards : 4 cards
Each containing one form : Affirmative , Negative , Interrogative
and Interro-Negative ;
and one use of the Pr.S : Truth , Habit , Planned future actions ,
and Past related as present or historic present .
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Task directions
Objectives : Through this task , you are expected to be able to :
 raise your awareness ,
 and gain an explicit knowledge about the different forms and uses of the
Pr.S through a series of interaction and exchange of information .
Organisation of the task :
1. Complete the task cards individually .
2. Dictate them to your subgroup who write them down on the task sheet .
3. Discuss the use of the Pr.S you think corresponds to the sentences .
4. Negotiate your choice with the other subgroups .
The procedure
1. Analysis of the task card input to find the required tense form and rule
governing the set of sentences to be copied in in the task sheets .
2. Interaction and negotiation of the answer provided by each one .
3. Once the right answer is agreed on , it is submitted to the whole class for
a general agreement under the teacher’s guidance and control .
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Outcomes : The students have to develop :
1. understanding of the forms and the uses of the tense ,
2. the ability to choose the correct rule underlying the tense ,
3. interaction , autonomy and motivation ,
4. an active role in the process of learning
through the exchange of information .
Results
The post-test results (essay writing, narration) indicate that GCRTs are:
1. more effective for developing grammatical accuracy and grammatical
explicit knowledge than TTFGLs ,
2. more effective for fostering interaction and comprehensible output and
for enhancing students’ autonomy , self-confidence and motivation .
This gives us grounds to advocate GCRTs as a motivating methodology to the
teaching of grammar in the context of EFL .
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Conclusion
1. The general goal of language learning is
fluent accuracy and effective use of the target language .
So, the primary concern of a teacher should be how to
integrate attention to form and meaning .
2. GCRTs are in accordance with the principle that what
learners can find by and for themselves
is better remembered than what they are simply told .
3. They are a critical investigation of the linguistic features
involving the learners in a study of the form and the use.
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