RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
(Business Research Methods)
Week 2
29 August 2005
MBA III (Research Methodology)
Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan
1
What is Research? (1)
There are many accepted definitions for the term
“research”, for example:
Research is an active, diligent and systematic process of
inquiry in order to discover, interpret or revise facts,
events, behaviours, or theories, or to make practical
applications with the help of such facts, laws or theories.
The term ‘research’ is also used to describe the
collection of information about a particular subject
(Encyclopedia Wikipedia)
29 August 2005
MBA III (Research Methodology)
Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan
2
What is Research? (2)
Other insightful definitions of “research” are:
 Systematic, intensive, patient study and investigation in some field
of knowledge, usually employing the techniques of hypothesis and
experiment, whose purpose is to reveal new facts, theories, or
principles
 Means a systematic investigation, including research development,
testing and evaluation, designed to develop or contribute to
generalizable knowledge
 Systematic study directed toward more complete scientific
knowledge or understanding of the subject studied
29 August 2005
MBA III (Research Methodology)
Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan
3
Types and Scope of Research
TYPES OF RESEARCH
BASIC
Non-Specificity
APPLIED
Specificity
Research is undertaken in numerous scientific disciplines, e.g.:
 Natural / Physical Sciences
 Social Sciences
 Management Sciences
 Humanities
29 August 2005
MBA III (Research Methodology)
Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan
4
The Dimensions of Research
Theories
Concepts
Deductive
Reasoning
RESEARCH
Propositions
Scientific Method
Inductive
Reasoning
Hypotheses
Empiricism
29 August 2005
MBA III (Research Methodology)
Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan
5
What is a Theory? (1)
Zikmund (p. 41) has defined a theory as “a coherent set of general
propositions, used as principles of explanation of the amount of the
apparent relationships of certain observed phenomona”
Concepts (or constructs) are the basic building blocks of theory
development. A concept (or construct) is a generalized idea about a
class of objects, attributes, occurrences, or processes that have
been given a name. A concept (or construct) may vary in terms of
the level of abstraction
Examples: Productivity, Leadership, Morale, Assets, Inflation
29 August 2005
MBA III (Research Methodology)
Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan
6
What is a Theory? (2)
A proposition is a statement concerned with the relationship
between concepts. It asserts a universal connection and logical
linkage between concepts. Propositions are at a higher level of
abstraction than concepts
Example: Smoking is injurious to health
Hypotheses are propositions which are empirically testable. They
are usually concerned with the relationships between variables
Example: Increasing salary by 10% will double the production
29 August 2005
MBA III (Research Methodology)
Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan
7
The Abstraction Ladder
Theory
Abstract Level
Propositions
Levels of
Abstraction
Concepts / Constructs
Observations of Objects,
Events and Occurrences (Reality)
29 August 2005
MBA III (Research Methodology)
Empirical Level
Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan
8
Qualities of a Good Theory (1)
“A theory is a good theory if it satisfies two
requirements. It must accurately describe a large
class of observations on the basis of a model
that contains only a few arbitrary elements. And
it must make definite predictions about the result
of future observations”
Stephen Hawking, A Brief History of Time, 1988
29 August 2005
MBA III (Research Methodology)
Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan
9
Qualities of a Good Theory (2)
Often, competing theories are put forth to explain certain
phenomena. One cannot really be 100% certain that a
given theory is correct because, no matter on how many
occasions the results of experiments agree with the
theory, there may come an occasion when some do not
Theories must be:
Objective
Verifiable (i.e. within the accepted margins of error)
Falsifiable / disprovable
Good theories must understand, explain and predict
29 August 2005
MBA III (Research Methodology)
Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan
10
Example of a Theory: Voluntary Job Turnover
Job Performance
Labour market conditions, number of
organizations, personal characteristics,
And other partial determinants
of ease of movement
Perceived ease of movement (e.g.
Expectation of finding alternatives,
unsolicited opportunities)
Voluntary
Job
Turnover
Perceived desirability of movement
(e.g. job satisfaction)
Equity of pay, job complexity, participation
In decision-making, and other partial
Determinants of desirability of movement
29 August 2005
Intention
To
Quit
MBA III (Research Methodology)
Zikmund, pp. 44 - 45
Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan
11
Deductive Reasoning
Theory
Hypotheses
Observation
Using deductive reasoning, one
starts with a given theory as the
basis for which we develop
hypotheses and then confirm
these with specific
data acquired using observation
or experimentation
(Is our theory valid or not?)
Confirmation
29 August 2005
MBA III (Research Methodology)
Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan
12
Inductive Reasoning
Observation
Using inductive reasoning, one
starts with a specific observation
as the basis for which we develop
a general pattern and tentative
hypothesis as the foundation
of a theory
Pattern
Tentative Hypothesis
Theory
29 August 2005
MBA III (Research Methodology)
Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan
13
The Scientific Method
The “scientific method” is basically an overarching
perspective on how scientific investigations should be
undertaken. It can, in effect, be considered as a
complete set of principles and methods that help
researchers in all scientific disciplines obtain valid results
for their research studies, and which includes the
provision of clear and universally accepted guidelines for
acquiring, evaluating and communicating information in
the context of a research study
The goals of scientific research are, broadly speaking, to
understand, explain and predict
29 August 2005
MBA III (Research Methodology)
Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan
14
Elements of the Scientific Method
 Empirical Approach
 Observation
 Questions
 Hypotheses
 Experiments
 Analysis
 Conclusion
 Replication
29 August 2005
MBA III (Research Methodology)
Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan
15
Elements of the Scientific Method
(Empirical Approach)
Evidence-based approach. The guiding principle
behind all research conducted in accordance
with the scientific method
Data derived from direct, systematic and careful
observation and experimentation (as opposed to
speculation, intuition, opinions, hunches, gut
feeling)
29 August 2005
MBA III (Research Methodology)
Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan
16
Elements of the Scientific Method
(Observation)
Awareness of the real / physical / social world in which
we exist. This, in turn, gives rise to questions as the
basis for research studies or investigations
Operational Definitions – Ensures consistency when
researchers talk about or are interested in undertaking or
replicating research on the same phenomenon.
Example: What is “exercise”?
29 August 2005
MBA III (Research Methodology)
Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan
17
Elements of the Scientific Method
(Questions)
Making an answerable question out of a research idea.
The question must be answered using available and
established scientific research techniques and
procedures. Scientific Analysis should not be attempted
on questions which cannot be answered
Example of an answerable question: Can regular
exercising reduce an individual’s cholesterol level?
Example of a (currently) unanswerable question: Is time
travel possible?
29 August 2005
MBA III (Research Methodology)
Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan
18
Elements of the Scientific Method
(Hypotheses)
Hypotheses attempt to explain phenomena of interest. A hypothesis
is a proposition which is empirically testable. It usually seeks to
explain relationships between variables, and predict, and must be
falsifiable
Typical hypotheses structures:
Conditional - If Condition X is fulfilled, then Outcome Y will result
Correlational - The value of Variable B is observed to be related with
changes in the value of Variable A
Causal – The value of Variable ψ determines the value of Variable ξ
29 August 2005
MBA III (Research Methodology)
Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan
19
Elements of the Scientific Method
(Experiments)
Experiments are basically about measuring phenomena
and collecting accurate and reliable data which are used
for analysis and evaluation
Accuracy – Correctness of the Measurement
Reliability – Consistency of the Measurement
29 August 2005
MBA III (Research Methodology)
Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan
20
Elements of the Scientific Method
(Analysis)
Analysis is about the use of qualitative or quantitative
tools and techniques to process data
Quantitative tools and techniques are considered more
desirable (objective) than qualitative tools and
techniques
Statistical analysis is typically used to quantitatively
analyze data acquired in research studies
29 August 2005
MBA III (Research Methodology)
Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan
21
Elements of the Scientific Method
(Conclusions)
Based on the results of the analysis conducted, and
used to support or refute a hypothesis
When undertaking research, conclusions should only be
based on the available data and not broadened to
include statements which are not supported by the data
Example: If the research analysis shows that two
variables are correlated (related), do not assert also that
a causal relationship exists between them
29 August 2005
MBA III (Research Methodology)
Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan
22
Elements of the Scientific Method
(Replication)
The purpose of replication is to ensure that if the same
research study is conducted with different participants
(i.e. researchers, research subjects), then the same
results are achieved
Replication establishes the reliability of a research
study’s conclusions
Conclusions are often based on the results of one
research study (aberration effect) which may not be
accurate
29 August 2005
MBA III (Research Methodology)
Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan
23