Human Anatomy
(BIOL 1010)
E. Goffe
eggoffe@ccri.edu
Office 1132F (Providence)
What is Anatomy?
Anatomy (= morphology): study of body’s structure
Physiology: study of body’s function
Structure reflects Function!!!
Branches of Anatomy
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Gross: Large structures
Surface: Landmarks
Histology: Cells and Tissues
Developmental: Structures change through life
Embryology: Structures form and develop before birth
Hierarchy of the Body
Moleculesmade of chemicals
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(4 macromolecules in body)
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids
Cellsmade of molecules
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cells and organelles
Tissuemade of cells
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epithelial, connective, muscular, nervous
Organsmade of tissues
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made of >1 type of tissue
Systemsmade of organs
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11 systems in human body
Organismsmade of systems
Anatomical Directions
Anatomical position
Regions
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Axial vs. Appendicular
Anatomical Directions-It’s all Relative!
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Anterior (ventral) vs. Posterior (dorsal)
Medial vs. Lateral
Superior (cranial) vs. Inferior (caudal)
Superficial vs. Deep
Proximal vs. Distal
Anatomical Planes
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Frontal = Coronal
Transverse = Horizontal = Cross Section
Sagittal
Embryology:
growth and development
of the body before birth
38 weeks from conception to birth
Prenatal period
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Embryonic: weeks 1-8
Fetal: weeks 9-38
Basic adult body plan shows by 2nd month
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Skin = epidermis, dermis
Outer body wall=muscle, vertebral column and spinal
cord
Body cavity and digestive tubes
Kidney and gonads
Limbs=skin, muscle, bone
Weeks 5-8 and Fetal Period
Second month, tadpole  person
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Tail disappears
Head enlarges
Extremities form (day 28, limb buds appear)
Eyes, nose, ears form
Organs in place
Fetal Period
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Rapid growth and maturation
Organs grow and increase in complexity &
competence
4 Types of Tissue
1)Epithelium
2)Connective
3)Muscle
4)Nervous
Tissues:
groups of cells closely associated that
have a similar structure and perform a related function
Four types of tissue
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Epithelial = covering/lining
Connective = support
Muscle = movement
Nervous = control
Most organs contain all 4 types
Tissue has non-living extracellular
material between its cells
EPITHELIAL TISSUE:
sheets of
cells cover a surface or line a cavity
(tissue type #1)
Functions
Protection
 Secretion
 Absorption
 Ion Transport
 Slippery Surface
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Characteristics of Epithelium
Cellularity
Specialized Contacts
Polarity
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Apical vs. Basal
Supported by Connective Tissue
Avascular
Innervated
Regenerative
Classification of Epithelium-based
on number of layers and cell shape
Layers
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Simple
Stratified
Psuedostratified
Stratified layers characterized by shape of
apical layer
Shapes
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Squamous
Cuboidal
Columnar
Transitional
Features of Apical Surface of
Epithelium
Microvilli: (ex) in small intestine
 Finger-like extensions of the plasma membrane
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of apical epithelial cell
Increase surface area for absorption
Cilia:
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(ex) respiratory tubes
Whip-like, motile extension of plasma membrane
Moves mucus, etc. over epithelial surface 1-way
Flagella:
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(ex) spermatoza
Extra long cilia
Moves cell
Features of Lateral Surface of
Epithelium
Cells are connected to neighboring cells via:
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Proteins-link cells together, interdigitate
Contour of cells-wavy contour fits together
Cell Junctions
 Desmosomes-adhesive spots on lateral sides linked by
proteins/filaments, holds tissues together
 Tight Junctions-at apical area, plasma membrane of
adjacent cells fuse, nothing passes
 Gap junctionspot-like junction occurring anywhere
made of hollow cylinders of protein,
lets small molecules pass
Features of the Basal Surface
of Epithelium
Basement membrane = Sheet between the epithelial
and connective tissue layers
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Attaches epithelium to connective tissue below
Basal lamina: thin, non-cellular, supportive sheet Made of
proteins
 Superficial layer
 Acts as a selective filter
 Assists epithelial cell regeneration by moving new cells
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Reticular fiber layer
 Deeper layer
 Support
Glands:
epithelial cells that make and
secrete a water-based substance w/proteins
Exocrine Glands
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Secrete substance onto body surface or into body
cavity
Have ducts (simple vs. compound)
Unicellular (goblet cells) or Multicellular (tubular,
alveolar, tubuloalveolar)
(ex) salivary, mammary, pancreas, liver
Glands:
epithelial cells that make and
secrete a water-based substance w/proteins
Endocrine Glands
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Secrete product into blood stream
Either stored in secretory cells or in follicle
surrounded by secretory cells
Hormones travel to target organ to increase
response (excitatory)
No ducts
(ex) pancreas, adrenal, pituitary, thyroid
4 Types of Connective Tissue
1)
2)
3)
4)
Connective Tissue Proper
Cartilage
Bone Tissue
Blood
Connective Tissue (CT):
most abundant and diverse tissue
(tissue type #2)
Four Classes
Functions include connecting, storing &
carrying nutrients, protection, fight infection
CT contains large amounts of non-living
extracellular matrix
Some types vascularized
All CT originates from mesenchyme
1) Connective Tissue Proper
Two kinds: Loose CT & Dense CT
Prototype: Loose Areolar Tissue
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Underneath epithelial tissue
Functions
 Support and bind to other tissue
 Hold body fluids
 Defends against infection
 Stores nutrients as fat
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Each function performed by different kind of
fiber in tissue
Fibers in Connective Tissue
Fibers For Support
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Reticular: form networks for structure & support
(ex) cover capillaries
Collagen: strongest, most numerous, provide
tensile strength
(ex) dominant fiber in ligaments
Elastic: long + thin, stretch and retain shape
(ex) dominant fiber in elastic cartilage
In Connective Tissue Proper
Fibroblasts: cells that produce all fibers in
CT, produce + secrete protein subunits to
make them, produce ground matrix
Interstitial (Tissue) Fluid: derived from
blood in CT proper; medium for nutrients,
waste + oxygen to travel to cells; found in
ground matrix
Ground Matrix (substance): part of extracellular material that holds and absorbs
interstitial fluid, jelly-like with sugar &
protein molecules
Defense from Infection
Areolar tissue below epithelium is body’s first
defense
Cells travel to CT in blood
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Macrophages-eat foreign particles
Plasma cells-secrete antibodies, mark molecules for
destruction
Mast cells-contain chemical mediators for
inflammation response
White Blood Cells = neutrophils, lymphocytes,
eosinophils-fight infection
Ground substance + cell fibers-slow invading
microorganisms
Specialized Loose CT Proper
Adipose tissue-loaded with adipocytes,
highly vascularized, high metabolic activity
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Insulates, produces energy, supports
 (eg) in hypodermis under skin
Reticular CT-contains only reticular fibers
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Forms caverns to hold free cells
 (eg) bone marrow, holds blood cells
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Forms internal “skeleton” of some organs
 (eg) lymph nodes, spleen
Dense/Fibrous Connective Tissue
Contains more collagen
Can resist extremely strong pulling forces
Regular vs. Irregular
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Regular-fibers run same direction, parallel to pull
 (eg) fascia, tendons, ligaments
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Irregular-fibers thicker, run in different directions
 (eg) dermis, fibrous capsules at ends of bones
Components of CT Proper Summarized
Cells
Matrix
Fibroblasts
Gel-like ground
substance
Defense cells
Collagen fibers
Reticular fibers
Elastic fibers
-macrophages
-white blood cells
Adipocytes
2) Cartilage
Chondroblasts produce cartilage
Chondrocytes mature cartilage cells
More abundant in embryo than adult
Firm, Flexible
Resists compression
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(eg) trachea, meniscus
80% water
Avascular (chondrocytes can function w/low oxygen)
NOT Innervated
Perichondrium-dense, irregular connective tissue
around cartilage
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growth/repair of cartilage
resists expansion during compression of cartilage
Cartilage in the Body
Three types:
 Hyaline
 most abundant
 fibrils in matrix
 support via flexibility/resilience
 (eg) at limb joints, ribs, nose
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Elastic
 many elastic fibers in matrix too
 great flexibility
 (eg) external ear, epiglottis
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Fibrocartilage
 resists both compression and tension
 (eg) meniscus, annulus fibrosus
Components of Cartilage Summarized
Cells
Matrix
Chondrocytes
Gel-like ground
substance
Chondroblasts
Lots of water
(in growing cartilage)
Some have collagen and
elastic fibers
3) Bone Tissue:(a bone is an organ)
Functions:
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support (eg) pelvic bowl, legs
protect (eg) skull, vertebrae
mineral storage (eg) calcium, phosphate
(inorganic component)
movement (eg) walk, grasp objects
blood-cell formation (eg) red bone marrow
Components of Bone
 Matrix
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Mineralized with hydroxyappetite
 Cells
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Osteoblasts: secrete organic part of bone matrix
Osteocytes: mature bone cells, maintain bone matrix
 Connective Tissue Proper
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Periosteum: external layer of CT surrounds bone
Endosteum: internal layer of CT lines cavities and covers trabeculae
Both contain osteoblasts and osteoclasts
 Bone is well-vascularized, highly innervated
Bone Anatomy: Compact bone
Compact bone: dense, external layer
Haversian system = osteon
 long, cylindrical structures run parallel to long axis of bone
 within each osteon, groups of concentric tubes (lamella)
 Lamella: layer of bone matrix all fibers run in same
direction
 fibers on each lamella runs in opposite directions to one near it
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Haversian canal-runs through center of osteon, contain
blood vessels and nerves
Interstitial Lamella- pieces of bone matrix between osteon
Osteocytes between osteons
Bone Anatomy: Spongy bone
Spongy bone (cancellous bone): internal layer
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Trabeculae: small, needle-like pieces of bone
form honeycomb
 each made of several layers of lamellae + osteocytes
 no canal for vessels
 space filled with bone marrow
 not as dense, no direct stress at bone’s center
Shapes of Bones
Flat = skull, sternum, clavicle
Irregular = pelvis, vertebrae
Short = carpals, patella
Long = femur, phalanges,
metacarpals, humerus
Anatomy of a Long Bone
Diaphysis
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Medullary Cavity
Nutrient Art & Vein
2 Epiphyses
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Epiphyseal Plates
Epiphyseal Art & Vein
Periosteum
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Outer: Dense irregular CT
Inner: Osteoblasts, osteoclasts
Does not cover epiphyses
Attaches to bone matrix via collagen
fibers
Endosteum
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Osteoblasts, osteoclasts
Covers trabeculae, lines medullary
cavity
2 Types of Bone Formation
Endochondral Ossification: All other bones
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Begins with a cartilaginous model
Perichondrium becomes replaced by periosteum
Cartilage calcifies
Medullary cavity is formed by action of osteoclasts
Epiphyses grow and eventually calcify
 Epiphyseal plates remain cartilage for up to 20 years
Intramembranous Ossification
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Membrane bones: most skull bones and clavicle
Osteoblasts in membrane secrete osteoid that mineralizes
Trabeculae form between blood vessels, thickens to become
compact bone at periphery
Osteocytes maintain new bone tissue
Periosteum forms over it
Bone Growth & Remodeling
GROWTH
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Appositional Growth = widening of bone
 Bone tissue added on surface by osteoblasts of periosteum
 Medullary cavity maintained by osteoclasts
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Lengthening of Bone
 Epiphyseal plates enlarge by chondroblasts
 Matrix calcifies (chondrocytes die and disintegrate)
 Bone tissue replaces cartilage on diaphysis side
REMODELING
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Due to mechanical stresses on bones, their tissue
needs to be replaced
 Osteoclasts-take up bone ( = breakdown) release Ca2++ ,
PO4 to body fluids from bone
 Osteoblasts-form new bone by secreting osteoid
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Ideally osteoclasts and osteoblasts work at the
same rate!
Components of Bone Tissue Summarized
Cells
Matrix
Osteocytes
Gel-like ground
substance calcified with
inorganic salts
Collagen fibers
Osteoblasts
4) Blood: Atypical Connective Tissue
Function:
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Transports waste, gases, nutrients,
hormones through cardiovascular system
Helps regulate body temperature
Protects body by fighting infection
Derived from mesenchyme
Hematopoiesis: production of blood cells
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Occurs in red bone marrow
In adults, axial skeleton, girdles, proximal
epiphyses of humerus and femur
Blood Cells
Erythrocytes: (RBC) small, oxygen-transporting
most abundant in blood
no organelles, filled w/hemoglobin
pick up O2 at lungs, transport to rest of body
Platelets = Thrombocytes: fragments of cytoplasm
plug small tears in vessel walls, initiates clotting
Leukocytes: (WBC) complete cells , 5 types
fight against infectious microorganisms
stored in bone marrow for emergencies
Components of Blood Summarized
Cells
Matrix
Erythrocytes
(red blood cells)
Plasma
(liquid matrix)
Leukocytes
(white blood cells)
NO fibers
Platelets
Muscle Tissue
(tissue type #3)
Muscle cells/fibers
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Elongated
Contain many myofilaments: Actin & Myosin
FUNCTION
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Movement
Maintenance of posture
Joint Stabilization
Heat Generation
Three types: Skeletal, Cardiac, Smooth
Skeletal Muscle Tissue
(each skeletal muscle is an organ)
Cells
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Long and cylindrical, in bundles
Multinucleate
Obvious Striations
Skeletal Muscles-Voluntary
Connective Tissue Components:
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Endomysium-surrounds fibers
Perimysium-surrounds bundles
Epimysium-surrounds the muscle
Attached to bones, fascia, skin
Origin & Insertion
Cardiac Muscle
Cells
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Branching, chains of cells
Single or Binucleated
Striations
Connected by Intercalated discs
Cardiac Muscle-Involuntary
Myocardium-heart muscle
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Pumps blood through vessels
Connective Tissue Component
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Endomysium: surrounding cells
Smooth Muscle Tissue
Cells
Single cells, uninucleate
No striations
Smooth Muscle-Involuntary
2 layers-opposite orientation (peristalsis)
Lines hollow organs, blood vessels
Connective Tissue Component
Endomysium: surrounds cells
Nervous Tissue
Neurons: specialized nerve cells conduct
impulses
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Cell body, dendrite, axon
Interneuron: between motor & sensory
neuron in CNS
Characterized by:
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No mitosis (cell replication)
Longevity
High metabolic rate
Nervous Tissue: control
Support cells (= Glial): nourishment,
insulation, protection
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Satellite cells-surround cell bodies within
ganglia
Schwann cells-surround axons
Microglia-phagocytes
Oligodendrocytes-produce myelin sheaths
around axons
Ependymal cells-line brain/spinal cord,
ciliated,help circulate CSF
Brain, spinal cord, nerves
Neuronal
Anatomy
Synapse: cell junction where neurons
communicate
One direction: presynaptic neuron,
postsynaptic neuron
Presynaptic neuron
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
Synaptic vesicles fuses w/presynaptic
membrane
Neurotransmitters released,
diffuse across
synaptic cleft, bind to
postsynaptic membrane
٠Creates impulse
(action potential) in
that neuron
٠Cycle repeats
Integumentary System
Skin
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Epidermis = epithelium
Dermis = connective tissue
Hypodermis = connective tissue
Skin Appendages = outgrowths of epidermis
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Hair follicles
Sweat and Sebaceous glands
Nails
Integumentary System
Functions
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Protection
 Mechanical, thermal, chemical, UV
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Cushions & insulates deeper organs
Prevention of water loss
Thermoregulation
Excretion
 Salts, urea, water
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Sensory reception
Layers of the Epidermis
Stratum corneum
Dead keratinocytes
Stratum lucidum
Dead keratinocytes
Stratum granulosum
Keratinocytes
Tonofilaments
Lamellated & keratohyaline granules
Stratum spinosum
Keratinocytes
Tonofilaments
Langerhans cells
Stratum basale
Keratinocytes
Melanocytes
Merkel receptors
Dermis
Highly innervated
Highly vascularized
Collagen & Elastic fibers
Many cell types
Fibroblasts
Macrophages
Mast cells
White blood cells
Papillary layer (20%)
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Areolar CT
Hair follicles
Reticular layer (80%)
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Dense Irregular CT
Glands
 Sebaceous glands
 Sweat glands
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Smooth muscle fibers
Hypodermis
Also called superficial fascia
Areolar & Adipose Connective Tissue
Functions
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Store fat
Anchor skin to muscle, etc.
Insulation