Q #01… Describe the nervous system. Begin by first identifying the anatomy of the
central nervous system and explaining what role each organ plays in the overall system.
Next, identify the significant anatomical parts of the peripheral nervous system including
the division of the spinal nerves and their corresponding numbering. Then, name
important pathology that afflicts those particular anatomical parts just named. Also,
choose which laboratory tests and diagnostic procedures would be used in compliance
with the specific pathology.
Answer:
Nervous system is the network of nerve cells and fibers which transmits nerve impulses
between parts of the body. This system of cells, tissues, and organs regulates the
body's responses to internal and external stimuli. The nervous system is composed of
three parts: the central nervous system, the autonomic nervous system, and the
peripheral nervous system. The brain and spinal cord form the central nervous system.
The autonomic nervous system controls core functions like heart rate and breathing.
And the peripheral nervous system regulates movement and sensation. It is the sensory
and control apparatus consisting of a network of nerve cells.
The nervous system is divided into the:


central nervous system
Peripheral nervous system.
Central Nervous System
 The central nervous system is divided into two parts:
 the brain.
 The spinal cord.
The brain contains about 100 billion nerve cells(neurons) and trillions of
"support cells" called glia. The spinal cord is about 43 cm long in adult women
and 45 cm long in adult men and weighs about 35-40 grams.
Peripheral Nervous System
T he peripheral nervous system is divided into two major parts:
 the somatic nervous system
 The autonomic nervous system.
The somatic nervous system consists of peripheral nerve fibers that send sensory
information to the central nervous system AND motor nerve fibers that project to
skeletal muscle.
The autonomic nervous system is divided into three parts: the sympathetic nervous
system, the parasympathetic nervous system and the enteric nervous system. The
autonomic nervous system controls smooth muscle of the viscera (internal organs) and
glands.
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM:
The central nervous system is divided into two parts:


The brain.
The spinal cord.
Functions of important parts of brain are:
The schematic diagram of function of CNS is
Peripheral Nervous system:
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is the division of the nervous
system containing all the nerves that lie outside of the central nervous system
(CNS). The primary role of the PNS is to connect the CNS to the organs, limbs
and skin. These nerves extend from the central nervous system to the outermost
areas of the body.
The nerves that make up the peripheral nervous system are actually the axons or
bundles of axons from neuron cells. In some cases, these nerves are very small but
some nerve bundles are so large that they can be easily seen by the human eye.
The peripheral nervous system, or PNS, consists of the nerves and ganglia outside of
the brain and spinal cord. The main function of the PNS is to connect the central
nervous system (CNS) to the limbs and organs. Unlike the CNS, the PNS is not
protected by the bone of spine and skull, or by the blood-brain barrier, leaving it
exposed to toxins and mechanical injuries. The peripheral nervous system is divided
into the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system; some textbooks
also include sensory systems.
The cranial nerves are part of the PNS.
Basic Structural Components of the PNS
•
•
•
Sensory receptors – pick up stimuli from inside or outside the body
Motor endings – axon terminals of motor neurons
– Innervate effectors (muscle fibers and glands)
Nerves and ganglia
– Nerves – bundles of peripheral axons
– Ganglia – clusters of peripheral neuronal cell bodies
Classification

General classification
o
By direction
o By function
General classification
By direction
There are two types of neurons, carrying nerve impulses in different directions. These
two groups of neurons are:


The sensory neurons are afferent neurons which relay nerve impulses toward
the central nervous system.
The motor neurons are efferent neurons which relay nerve impulses away from
the central nervous system.
By function
The peripheral nervous system is functionally as well as structurally divided into


the somatic nervous system
Autonomic nervous system.
The somatic nervous system is responsible for coordinating the body movements,
and also for receiving external stimuli. It is the system that regulates activities that
are under conscious control.


The autonomic nervous system is then split into the
sympathetic division


parasympathetic division
Enteric division.
The sympathetic nervous system responds to impending danger, and is
responsible for the increase of one's heartbeat and blood pressure, among
other physiological changes, along with the sense of excitement one feels
due to the increase of adrenaline in the system. ("fight or flight" responses).
The parasympathetic nervous system, on the other hand, is evident when a
person is resting and feels relaxed, and is responsible for such things as the
constriction of the pupil, the slowing of the heart, the dilation of the blood
vessels, and the stimulation of the digestive and genitourinary systems. ("rest
and digest" responses).
The role of the enteric nervous system is to manage every aspect of
digestion, from the esophagus to the stomach, small intestine and colon.
Basic anatomical difference between the motor pathways of the voluntary somatic
nervous system (to skeletal muscles) and those of the autonomic nervous system
•
•
Somatic division:
– Cell bodies of motor neurons reside in CNS (brain or spinal cord)
– Their axons (sheathed in spinal nerves) extend all the way to their skeletal
muscles
Autonomic system: chains of two motor neurons
– 1st = preganglionic neuron (in brain or cord)
– 2nd = gangionic neuron (cell body in ganglion outside CNS)
ganglia
Spinal nerves
The 31 pairs of spinal nerves are segmental in distribution and emerge from the
vertebral canal between the pedicles of adjacent vertebrae. There are eight pairs of
cervical nerves (C1 to C8), twelve thoracic (T1 to T12), five lumbar (L1 to L5), five
sacral (S1 to S5), and one coccygeal (Co). Each nerve is attached to the spinal cord by
a posterior root and an anterior root.
After exiting the vertebral canal, each spinal nerve branches into:


a posterior ramus-collectively, the small posterior rami innervate the back; and
an anterior ramus-the much larger anterior rami innervate most other regions of
the body except the head, which is innervated predominantly, but not exclusively,
by cranial nerves.
The anterior rami form the major somatic plexuses (cervical, brachial, lumbar, and
sacral) of the body. Major visceral components of the PNS (sympathetic trunk and
prevertebral plexus) of the body are also associated mainly with the anterior rami of
spinal nerves.
Spinal nerves originate from the spinal cord at increasingly oblique angles from
vertebrae CI to Co, and the nerve roots pass in the vertebral canal for increasingly
longer distances. Their spinal cord level of origin therefore becomes increasingly
dissociated from their vertebral column level of exit. This is particularly evident for
lumbar and sacral spinal nerves.
Because the spinal cord is much shorter than the vertebral column, the roots of spinal
nerves become longer and pass more obliquely from the cervical to coccygeal regions
of the vertebral canal.
In adults, the spinal cord terminates at a level approximately between vertebrae LI and
LII, but this can range between vertebra TXII and the disc between vertebrae LII and
LIII. Consequently, posterior and anterior roots forming spinal nerves emerging between
vertebrae in the lower regions of the vertebral column are connected to the spinal cord
at higher vertebral levels.
Below the end of the spinal cord, the posterior and anterior roots of lumbar, sacral, and
coccygeal nerves pass inferiorly to reach their exit points from the vertebral canal. This
terminal cluster of roots is the cauda equine.
Each spinal nerve is connected to the spinal cord by posterior and anterior roots:


the posterior root contains the processes of sensory neurons carrying information
to the CNS-the cell bodies of the sensory neurons, which are derived
embryologically from neural crest cells, are clustered in a spinal ganglion at the
distal end of the posterior root, usually in the intervertebral foramen;
The anterior root contains motor nerve fibers, which carry signals away from the
CNS-the cell bodies of the primary motor neurons are in anterior regions of the
spinal cord.
Medially, the posterior and anterior roots divide into rootlets, which attach to the spinal
cord.
Structural Organization of PNS in Region of a Spinal Nerve:
Nomenclature of spinal nerves
There are approximately 31 pairs of spinal nerves, named according to their position
with respect to associated vertebrae:



eight cervical nerves-C1 to C8;
twelve thoracic nerves-T1 to T12;
five lumbar nerves-L1 to L5;


five sacral nerves-S1 to S5;
one coccygeal nerve-Co.
Pathologies and Diagnostic Tests:
The common diseases which affect the CNS are:
1) Multiple sclerosis
It is diagnosed by





MRI of brain and spinal cord is the definitive investigation
CT scan
CSF examination
Electrophysiological tests.
Blood/urine tests
2) Myasthenia Gravis
It is diagnosed by
 Anti-acetylcholine receptor antibody
 Anti-striated muscle
 Chest x-ray
 Chest CT scan
 MRI of the brain and orbits
 Electrodiagnostic studies e.g. Repetitive nerve stimulation
 Pharmacological testing e.g. Edrophonium (Tensilon test)
3) Epilepsy
It is diagnosed by



Electroencephalography
CT scan
MR imaging
4) Meningitis
It is diagnosed by

CT scan brain

MRI brain – edema of temporal lobes

CSF – pleocytosis - +ce cell count

EEG – change in waive pattern

Viral serology – blood and CSF
5) Parkinson's disease
It is diagnosed by



Clinical examination
Conventional imaging (MR)
Dopamine transporter (DAT) imaging
6) Encephalitis
It is diagnosed by
 CT scan
 MRI
 ECG
 CSF examination
7) Motor neuron disease
It is diagnosed by
 Clinical diagnosis
 Electromyography (EMG)
Q #02… Explain the working of respiratory system. First, begin by identifying important
anatomical parts and indication what each organ is responsible for the entire system.
Next, specify any disease or pathology that afflicts those anatomical parts just named.
Then select the laboratory tests and diagnostic procedures that would be used in
compliance with that particular disease or pathology.
Answer:
The respiratory system is the system in the human body that enables us to breathe.
Respiration has two quite different meanings:
(1) Utilization of oxygen in the metabolism of organic molecules by cells (Often termed
internal or cellular respiration).
(2) The exchanges of oxygen and carbon dioxide between an organism and the external
environment.
Human cells obtain most of their energy from chemical reactions involving oxygen. In
addition, cells must be able to eliminate carbon dioxide, the major end product of
oxidative metabolism. The respiratory system includes the lungs, the series of tubes
leading to the lungs, and the chest structures responsible for moving air into and out of
the lungs during breathing.
The act of breathing includes: inhaling and exhaling air in the body; the absorption of
oxygen from the air in order to produce energy; the discharge of carbon dioxide, which
is the byproduct of the process.
The parts of the respiratory system
The respiratory system is divided into two parts:
Upper respiratory tract:
This includes the nose, mouth, and the beginning of the trachea (the section that takes
air in and lets it out).
Lower respiratory tract:
This includes the trachea, the bronchi, broncheoli and the lungs (the act of breathing
takes place in this part of the system).
The organs of the lower respiratory tract are located in the chest cavity. They are
delineated and protected by the ribcage, the chest bone (sternum), and the muscles
between the ribs and the diaphragm (that constitute a muscular partition between the
chest and the abdominal cavity).
The trachea – the tube connecting the throat to the bronchi.
The bronchi – the trachea divides into two bronchi (tubes). One leads to the left
lung, the other to the right lung. Inside the lungs each of the bronchi divides into
smaller bronchi.
The broncheoli - the bronchi branches off into smaller tubes called broncheoli
which end in the pulmonary alveolus.
Pulmonary alveoli – tiny sacs (air sacs) delineated by a single-layer membrane
with blood capillaries at the other end.
The exchange of gases takes place through the membrane of the pulmonary
alveolus, which always contains air: oxygen (O2) is absorbed from the air into the
blood capillaries and the action of the heart circulates it through all the tissues in
the body. At the same time, carbon dioxide (CO2) is transmitted from the blood
capillaries into the alveoli and then expelled through the bronchi and the upper
respiratory tract.
The inner surface of the lungs where the exchange of gases takes place is very
large, due to the structure of the air sacs of the alveoli.
The lungs – a pair of organs found in all vertebrates.
The structure of the lungs includes the bronchial tree – air tubes branching off
from the bronchi into smaller and smaller air tubes, each one ending in a
pulmonary alveolus.
The larynx opens into a long tube, the trachea, which in turn branches into two bronchi
(singular, bronchus), one of which enters each lung. Within the lungs, there are more
than 20 generations of branchings, each resulting in narrower, shorter, and more
numerous tubes. The walls of the trachea and bronchi contain cartilage, which gives
them their cylindrical shape and supports them. The first airway branches that no longer
contain cartilage are termed bronchioles. Alveoli first begin to appear in respiratory
bronchioles, attached to their walls. The number of alveoli increases in the alveolar
ducts and the airways then end in grapelike clusters consisting entirely of alveoli. The
airways, like blood vessels, are surrounded by smooth muscle, the contraction or
relaxation of which can alter airway radius. The airways beyond the larynx can be
divided into two zones:
(1) The conducting zone extends from the top of the trachea to the beginning of the
respiratory bronchioles; it contains no alveoli and there is no gas exchange with the
blood.
(2) The respiratory zone, which extends from the respiratory bronchioles on down,
contains alveoli and is the region where gases exchange with the blood.
The act of breathing
The act of breathing has two stages – inhalation and exhalation

Inhalation – the intake of air into the lungs through expansion of chest volume.

Exhalation – the expulsion of air from the lungs through contraction of chest volume.
Functions of Respiratory System:
Function of Conducting Zone of the Airway:
Pathologies and Diagnostic Tests:
1) Interstitial Lung Disease (ILD)
It can be diagnose by






Chest radiography
Physical examinations
Pulmonary function tests
BAL (bronchi0 alevolar lavage)examination
Blood examination
Lung biopsy
2) Sarcoidosis
It can be diagnose by







Imaging
Full blood count
Serum biochemistry
Trans bronchial biopsy
Serum angiotensin converting enzyme levels
Lung function test—restrictive lung disease
3) Pulmonary hypertension
It can be diagnose by






Chest X-Ray
Echocardiography (Ultrasonic Cardiography)
Electrocardiogram (ECG)
Pulmonary Angiogram
Perfusion Lung Scan
Computerized Tomography (CT)
4) Respiratory failure
It can be diagnose by






Blood C/E
Chest X-ray (CXR)
ECG
Arterial blood gases (ABGs)
Pulse Oximetry
Spirometry
5) Asthma
It can be diagnose by








Lung function tests e.g. by Spirometry
Exercise tests
Histamine or methacholine bronchialprovocation test
Trial of corticosteroids
Blood and sputum tests
Chest X-ray
Skin tests
Allergen provocation tests
6) Bronchiectasis
It can be diagnose by





Imaging Studies
Pulmonary function testing
Cultures of sputum and of bronchoalveolar lavage
High resolution CT scan (HRCT)
Bronchoscopy
7) Chronic obstructive airway/pulmonary disease (COAD or COPD)
It can be diagnose by


Pulmonary function test
Arterial blood gases and oximetry







Chest X-ray
High resolution CT scans
Haemoglobin level and PCV.
Sputum examination
Electrocardiogram.
Echocardiogram
α1-Antitrypsin levels
8) Pneumonia
It can be diagnose by


white blood cell (WBC) count
X-ray examination
9) Pneumothorax
It can be diagnose by


Plain Chest Radiographs
Chest CT
10) Pulmonary embolism
It can be diagnose by







Chest X ray
ECG
Increased serum lactase dehydrogenase (LDH)
D dimers
Ventilation/perfusion(V/Q) scan
Doppler studies of leg veins
CT angiography of pulmonary arteries
Q #03… Examine the skin and sense organs. Start by identifying key anatomical parts
and explaining what each organ is responsible for in the body. Then, indicate any
diseases or pathology that afflicts those particular anatomical parts just named. After
indicating the diseases or pathology, decide which of the laboratory tests and diagnostic
procedures would be used in compliance with that specific disease or pathology.
Answer:
The “integumentary system” consists of the skin and its derivatives (nails, hair, and
skin glands).
Skin is the largest organ of our body, and protects what lies beneath it. It accounts for
about 16% of total body weight. It varies in thickness and sensitivity in different regions
of the body. It is the largest organ of the body. Its surface area is 1.7 m2 and 1.5-4.0 mm
thickness.
Composition of skin:
It comprises of 3 layers
 Epidermis
 Dermis
 Hypodermis
Epidermis:
 Thickness 0.1-1.5mm
 Stratified squamous keratinized epithelium.
 Thickest on palms & soles thinnest on eyelids
 It contain 5 layers
 Stratum basale
 Stratum lucidum (More apparent in thick skin)
 Stratum spinosum
 Stratum granulosum
 Stratum corneum
 It contain 4 types of cells
 Keratinocytes (>90% of cells)
 Melanocytes
 Langerhans cells
 Merckel cells
 It contain free nerve endings.
Dermis:
 The surface is very irregular and has many projections (dermal papillae)
 Interdigitate with projections (epidermal pegs or ridges) of the epidermis.
 Dermal papillae are more numerous in skin that is subjected to frequent
pressure.
 Cells: fibroblasts, histiocytes, mast cells etc.
 Fibers: collagen, elastic fibers, reticulin fibers
 Sweat glands
 Eccrine
 Apocrine
 Sebaceous glands
 Hair follicles
 Smooth muscles: arrector pili, blood vessels,
 Blood vessels
 Lymphatics
 Nerves
 it have 2 layers
1. Papillary Layer: superficial layer

Lies directly beneath epidermis.

loose connective tissue; fibroblasts , mast cells and macrophages, extravasated
leukocytes .

Contains papillae. small, cone shaped projections of elastic tissue that point
upwards and contain looped capillaries or nerve fiber endings

Houses nerve endings (corpuscles).
2. Reticular Layer: deeper layer

Irregular dense connective tissue (mainly type I collagen), and has more fibers
and fewer cells .

network of fibers of the elastic system

Contains fat cells, blood and lymph vessels, sebaceous and sweat glands, hair
follicles, arrector pili muscles
Hypodermis:




Fatty layer; attaches dermis to underlying structures
Serve as shock absorbers for vital organs, stores energy
Varies in thickness according to age, sex, general health of individual.
Gives smoothness, contour to body, contains fats for use as energy, heat
insulator.
TYPES OF THE SKIN:
 THIN SKIN---All over the body
 THICK SKIN---lips, palm, sole
 Differences between thick and thin skin are:
FUNCTIONS OF SKIN:
 Protection: against mechanical, microbial, physical or chemical injury
 Perception: touch, pain, temperature
 Heat regulation: by sweating
 Excretion: urea, lactic acid etc.
 Synthetic: vitamin D
 Aesthetic function
 Emotional: flushing in anger
 Some of the images of functions of skin are:
SENSE ORGANS:
There are 5 sense organs in the human body. These are:
 eyes
 ears
 tongue
 skin
 Nose
These help to protect the body. The human sense organs contain receptors that relay
information through sensory neurons to the appropriate places within the nervous
system.
Each sense organ contains different receptors.

General receptors are found throughout the body because they are present in skin,
visceral organs (visceral meaning in the abdominal cavity), muscles, and joints.

Special receptors include chemoreceptor (chemical receptors) found in the mouth
and nose, photoreceptors (light receptors) found in the eyes, and
mechanoreceptors found in the ears.
Function of the Sense Organ:
The function of the sense organ is to receive external or internal stimuli and transmit
them to the brain in the form of nervous impulses. There are five senses: touch, taste,
hearing, sight and smell. The coordinated use of multiple sensory organs leads to
awareness of balance. Each organ has different functions. The eyes provide a sense of
sight, the nose provides a conduit for the sense of smell, and the ears are used for the
sense of hearing, the tongue functions as a conduit for the sense of taste while the skin,
which is the largest organ, is used for the sense of touch.
Pathologies of SKIN and Sense Organ and Their Diagnostic Tests:
1) Leprosy
It can be diagnose by
•
Clinically, two out of three findings
–
Anaesthesia of skin
–
Thickened nerves
–
Typical skin lesions.
•
AFB on slit-skin smear
•
Histology typical of leprosy
2) Leishmaniasis
It can be diagnose by:
 Typical lesion
 history of exposure
 endemic
 pathological confirmation
◦
organism in tissue and culture
 A full-thickness biopsy
 infiltrated margin of the lesion
 histological examination (In macrophages comma or dot shaped LT bodies will
be seen)
 an elliptical biopsy taken with a scalpel is preferred
3) Syphilis
It can be diagnose by
 Dark filed microscopy
 Serological tests
Non treponemal
 VDRL (venereal disease research laboratory test)
 RPR (rapid plasma reagin)
Treponemal Antigen Tests
 TPI
 TPHA : Treponema palladium Haemagglutination assay
 FTA/ABS test : Fluorescents treponemal antibody absorption test
4) Pemphigus
It can be diagnose by
•
Tzanck smear
•
Skin biopsy
•
Immunofluorescence
–
Direct
–
indirect
5) Chicken pox
It can be diagnose by
 Clinical
 Laboratory
–
Electron microscopy
–
Direct fluorescent antibody staining of a smear
–
PCR
6) Amblyopia
It can be diagnosed by





Visual acuity measurement in each eye and both eyes together (age
appropriate)
Cycloplegic refraction (with dilating eye drops)
External or slit lamp exam
Fundus (retina) examination
Complete eye exam (age appropriate)
7) Cataract
It can be diagnosed by



visual acuity
slit-lamp examination
retinal examination
8) Blepharitis
It can be diagnosed by



Clinical diagnosis
Swabbing
Biopsy
9) Otitis externa
It can be diagnosed by


Gram stain and culture of any discharge from the auditory canal
Blood glucose level

Urine dipstick
 High-resolution computed tomography (CT) scanning: Preferred; better depicts
bony erosion[6]
 Radionucleotide bone scanning
 Gallium scanning
 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
10) Rhinitis
It can be diagnosed by



Skin test
immunoglobulin E (IgE) antibodies
blood sample
Q #04… Explore the urinary system. Begin by first identifying significant anatomical
parts and explaining what role each organ plays in the overall system. Then, name
important pathology that afflicts those particular parts just named. Also, choose which
laboratory tests and diagnostic procedures would be used in compliance with that
specific pathology.
Answer:
The urinary system consists of all the organs involved in the formation and release
of urine. It includes the kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra.
The kidneys are bean-shaped organs which help the body produce urine to get rid of
unwanted waste substances. When urine is formed, tubes called ureters transport it to
the urinary bladder, where it is stored and excreted via the urethra. The kidneys are
also important in controlling our blood pressure and producing red blood cells. The
urinary system is one of the organ systems of the body. The organs of the urinary
system work to help the body get rid of wastes and excess water in the form of urine.
Other urinary system organs help transport urine or store urine and release it when it is
time. The urinary system works with the lungs, skin and intestines to maintain the
balance of chemicals and water in the body. Adults eliminate about a quart and a half
(1.42 liters) of urine each day, depending on the amount of fluid consumed and fluid lost
through perspiring and breathing. Certain types of medications, such as diuretics that
are sometimes used to treat high blood pressure, can also affect the amount of urine a
person produces and eliminates. Certain beverages, such as coffee, can also cause
increased urination in some people.
The primary organs of the urinary system are the kidneys, which are bean-shaped
organs that are located just below the rib cage in the middle of the back. The kidneys
remove urea — waste product formed by the breakdown of proteins — from the blood
through small filtering units called nephrons. Each nephron consists of a ball formed of
small blood capillaries, called a glomerulus, and a small tube called a renal tubule.
Urea, together with water and other waste substances, forms the urine as it passes
through the nephrons and down the renal tubules of the kidney.
Parts and Function of Urinary system:

Two kidneys. This pair of purplish-brown organs is located below the ribs toward the
middle of the back. Their function is to remove liquid waste from the blood in the form of
urine; keep a stable balance of salts and other substances in the blood; and produce
erythropoietin, a hormone that aids the formation of red blood cells. The kidneys remove
urea from the blood through tiny filtering units called nephrons. Each nephron consists
of a ball formed of small blood capillaries, called a glomerulus, and a small tube called a
renal tubule. Urea, together with water and other waste substances, forms the urine as
it passes through the nephrons and down the renal tubules of the kidney.

Two ureters. These narrow tubes carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder. Muscles
in the ureter walls continually tighten and relax forcing urine downward, away from the
kidneys. If urine backs up, or is allowed to stand still, a kidney infection can develop.
About every 10 to 15 seconds, small amounts of urine are emptied into the bladder from
the ureters.

Bladder. This triangle-shaped, hollow organ is located in the lower abdomen. It is held
in place by ligaments that are attached to other organs and the pelvic bones. The
bladder's walls relax and expand to store urine, and contract and flatten to empty urine
through the urethra. The typical healthy adult bladder can store up to two cups of urine
for two to five hours.

Two sphincter muscles. These circular muscles help keep urine from leaking by
closing tightly like a rubber band around the opening of the bladder.

Nerves in the bladder. The nerves alert a person when it is time to urinate, or empty
the bladder.
Urethra. This tube allows urine to pass outside the body. The brain signals the bladder
muscles to tighten, which squeezes urine out of the bladder. At the same time, the brain
signals the sphincter muscles to relax to let urine exit the bladder through the urethra.
When all the signals occur in the correct order, normal urination occurs.

Function of Urinary System:
Pathologies of Urinary System and Their Diagnostic Tests:
1) Horse shoe kidney
It can be diagnose by:






Urine RE
Urea criatinine
USG
IVU
Renal isotope scans (DTPA, MAG 3)
Retrograde pyelogrphhy
2) Polycystic kidney disease
It can be diagnose by:
 Ultrasound
 CT scan
 Intravenous urogram (IVU)
3) Upper urinary tract calculi
It can be diagnose by:
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


Baseline
RFTs
USG – hydro ureteronephrosis / stone
X-ray KUB
IVU/ delayed films
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Spiral CT / contrast / non contrast helical CT
Retrograde urography
Renal scan
4) Renal tumors
It can be diagnose by:
 Angiography
 CT Scan
 Radionuclide imaging
 Fine-Needle Aspiration
 Cystoscopy and urine Cytology Examination
5) Urinary fistula
It can be diagnose by:
 physical examination
 cystography
 cystoscopy
 phenazopyridine hydrochloride (Pyridium) test
 3 swab test
6) Gonococcal and non-gonococcal urethritis
It can be diagnose by:




Blood tests
Culture
Microscope examination
Special tests: Tests called nucleic acid amplification tests and DNA tests help
detect germs in samples of urine and fluid.
7) Urethral stricture
It can be diagnose by:
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





X ray Pelvis, KUB and USG
Treatment depends at site of impection
Meatus …… meatotomy and extraction
Followed by litholapexy
Lithoclast / LASER /
rarely …..urethrotomy and stone extraction
8) Urinary Tract Infections
It can be diagnose by:


URINE ANALYSIS
URINE CULTURE
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
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PLAIN FILM
IVU
MCG

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CYSTOSCOPY & URS
CT-MRI

RADIONUCLIDE SCANES
These are just little common pathology.
Reference:


Medical terminology: A short course (6th Edition). St. Louis: Saunders Elsevier.
Gray’s anatomy for students. 2nd edition.

Clinically oriented anatomy 6th edition by Keith L. Moore.



Bailey and Love. A Short Practice of Surgery 25th edition
ABC of Dermatology,5th edition.
Kumar and Clark Medicine, 7th Edition.
Thank you 