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THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
The Skeleton has 5 MAIN FUNCTIONS. This is to SUPPORT,
PROTECT, MOVEMENT, BLOOD CELL PRODUCTION and
MINERAL STORE.
The skeleton has 2 aspects. The AXIAL SKELETON includes the
axis of the body including the skull, spine and rib cage. The
APPENDICULAR SKELETON is the bones of the limbs and the
clavicle, scapula and pelvis.
A JOINT is where 2 or more bones ARTICULATE (meet). Joints
are held together by LIGAMENTS which join bone to bone and
TENDONS which attach the muscle to the skeleton
Bone is made of COLLAGEN fibres filled with minerals mainly
CALCIUM. There are 5 types of bone: Long, Short, Irregular, Flat,
Sesamoid. All bones of the limbs except your patella are Long
Bones, even those in your hands and feet
A long bone’s main shaft is called the DIAPHYSIS, Each end
section is called the EPIPHYSIS. A GROWTH PLATE divides the
2 sections in children. The end of a bone is covered in
ARTICULAR CARTLIAGE which is smooth and glassy and
THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
A)Label the Skeleton with the main bones
B)Colour the Axial and Appendicular
Skeletons
C)Classify each bone as either Long, Short,
Irregular, Flat or Sesamoid
D)Label the elements of a typical Long Bone
E) Complete the worksheet which identifies
Articulating Bones at a Joint
F) Discuss the functions of the skeleton in
your chosen sport
G)Describe how Cartilage becomes bone in
There are 3 planes of the body.
1)
ANTERIOR – towards the front of the body
POSTERIOR – towards the back of the body
2)
SUPERIOR – towards the head or upper part of the body
INFERIOR – towards the feet or lower part of the body
3)
MEDIAL – towards the middle of the body
LATERAL – towards the outside of the body
The ANATOMICAL POSITION is standing upright with palms face forward and by
your side
Stand in the ANATOMICAL POSITION and move your synovial (freely moveable)
joints in ways that represent the planes above. Can you also name parts of the
body that are in relation to the planes.
EG: The Pectoralis muscle is anterior of the rib cage and superior of the
abdominals
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JOINTS
Joints are the area where 2 or more bones ARTICULATE. They are CLASSIFIED in 3 ways according
to their balance, stability and mobility
There are FIBROUS (fixed) joints, CARTILAGINOUS (slightly moveable) joints and SYNOVIAL
(freely moveable) joints
SYNOVIAL joints have distinguishing features
LIGAMENTS – strong fibrous tissue which join bone to bone
SYNOVIAL MEMBRANE – releases synovial fluid
SYNOVIAL FLUID –lubricates the joint to reduce friction in the JOINT CAVITY
ARTICULAR CARTILAGE – glassy smooth cartilage that absorbs shock and reduces friction
JOINT CAPSULE – tough fibrous tissue which encapsulates and strengthens the joint
BURSA/E – sacks of synovial fluid which prevent ligaments and tendons rubbing
MENISCUS – white fibrocartilage which helps the joint fit together making it stable
PAD OF FAT – provides cushioning between the bone and muscle
Critically evaluate the functions of the Structural aspects of a Synovial Joint in the Knee when a
basketball player lands after a slam dunk:
Mobility and Stability!
Explain what would happen if he sprained his knee joint on landing
JOINT MOVEMENT
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FLEXION is when the angle of a joint decreases
EXTENSION is when the angle of the joint increases
HORIZONTAL FLEXION is when the shoulder moves across the front of the body
HORIZONTAL EXTENSION is when the shoulder moves laterally from the body
ABDUCTION is movement of the hip or shoulder away from the body – lateral
ADDUCTION is movement of the hip or shoulder towards the body – medial
ROTATION is when the hip or shoulder move around its axis from the ball and socket. This can be
MEDIAL and LATERAL.
CIRCUMDUCTION is when the limb moves in a cone shape or the end moves in a circular shape
PRONATION is when the Radio Ulnar joint rotates so the palms face down
SUPINATION is when the Radio Ulnar joint rotates so the palms face up (Bowl of Soup.. ination)
LATERAL FLEXION is when the spine bends sideways when you are in the anatomical position
DORSI FLEXION is when the ankle joint flexes so that the toes point towards the face
PLANTAR FLEXION is when the ankle joint flexes so the toes point down
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BICEP BRACHII and TRICEP BRACHII
TRAPEZIUS
PECTORALIS MAJOR
PRONATOR TERES – responsible for Pronation in the forearm
WRIST FLEXORS – inferior of Pronator Teres and WRIST EXTENSORS posterior of the flexors
RECTUS ABDOMINUS
EXTERNAL OBLIQUE – Anterior of Internal Oblique and Lateral of Rectus Abdominus
INTERNAL OBLIQUE – Posterior of External Oblique and Lateral of Rectus Abdominus
Deltoids – 3 – ANTERIOR, POSTERIOR and MIDDLE DELTOIDS
ILIOPSAOS – anterior of femur at superior end of femur
ADDUCTOR LONGUS – Medial of Quadriceps on anterior view
Quadriceps – RECTUS FEMORIS VASTUS LATERALIS VASTUS INTERMEDIUS and VASTUS MEDIALIS
GASTROCNEMIUS
SOLEUS – Inferior and lateral of Gastrocnemius
TIBILIAS ANTERIOR – Lateral of Tibia
Hamstrings – SEMIMEBROSUS (Medial) , SEMITENDONOUS, BICEP FEMORIS (Lateral)
ADDUCTOR MAGNUS – Medial and Posterior of Femur and superior end of femur
GLUTEUS MEDIUS which is superior and lateral to the bigger GLUTEUS MAXIMUS
LATTISIMUS DORSI
INFRASPINATUS which is superior and medial of the TERES MAJOR which is superior of the Lattisimus Dorsi
The Muscular System
• Muscles attach to the skeleton through tendons. There are 2 types of tendon.
The ORIGIN tendon is the tendon that remains fixed when the muscle
contracts. The INSERTION tendon moves when the muscle contracts.
• Muscles work as pairs to move or control a joint. EG: The BICEP BRACHII and
the TRICEP BRACHII control the ELBOW joint. The muscle responsible for
moving the joint is called the PRIME MOVER or the AGONIST. The other muscle
is known as the ANTAGONIST. Together they are known as ANTAGONISTIC
PAIRS.
• The shoulder muscle … the DELTOID has 3 parts. The ANTERIOR, POSTERIOR
and MIDDLE. Each has different functions.
• The ROTATOR CUFFS consist of 4 muscles which stabilise the shoulder joint.
They are the SUPRASPINATUS, INFRASPINATUS, TERES MINOR and
SUBSCAPULARIS. They prevent the larger muscles from displacing the head of
the humerus during activity.
Antagonistic Muscle Pairs
JOINT
ACTION
KNEE
(2)
ELBOW
(2)
WRIST
(2)
SHOULDER
(8)
RADIO/
ULNAR
(2)
SPINE
(4)
HIP
(6)
ANKLE
(2)
AGONIST
ORIGIN
INSERTION
ANTAGONIST
ORIGIN
INSERTION
SPORT EG
Extension: Complete the final column only after you have
finished all of the other columns
MUSCULAR CONTRACTION
• Muscles contract when a stimulus is sent to the muscle which produces tension
• There are 2 classifications of muscles contraction. It is either ISOTONIC
(changes length) or ISOMETRIC (remains same length)
• ISOTONIC contraction can be either CONCENTRIC (the muscle shortens) or
ECCENTRIC (the muscle lengthens)
• ECCENTRIC contraction occurs when we need to CONTROL a movement
against gravity or against another resistance.
ISOTONIC …. If we concentrate on the elbow joint. Explain muscle contraction
during a bicep curl. Complete the table with your partner. 1st row = Upward
Phase. 2nd row = Downward Phase.
JOINT
Elbow
JOINT TYPE
MOVEMENT
AGONIST
CONTRACTION
ANTAGONIST
CONTRACTION
MUSCULAR CONTRACTION
• Now try this with a PRESS UP using the elbow.
Use Row 1 for Upward Phases and Row 2 for Downward Phase
PRESS UP
JOINT
JOINT TYPE
MOVEMENT
AGONIST
CONTRACTION
ANTAGONIST
CONTRACTION
Can you now do for the SIT UP ….. A Vertebral joint
JOINT
JOINT TYPE
MOVEMENT
AGONIST
CONTRACTION
ANTAGONIST
CONTRACTION
MUSCLE FIBRES
MUSCLE FIBRES
A MUSCLE FIBRE …is a long cylindrical muscle cell held together in BUNDLES to make
up an individual muscle
There are 2 main types:
1) SLOW TWITCH FIBRES associated with Aerobic athletes
2) FAST TWITCH FIBRES associated with Anaerobic athletes
A) Fast OXIDATIVE GLYCOLITIC Fibres (FOG) – O2 supply
B) Fast GLYCOLITIC Fibres – NO O2 Supply
MITOCHONDRIA – the power houses or Oxygen Factories of muscle cells. Needed to
synthesis O2 for energy
MYOGLOBIN– stores and transports O2 in the muscle cell
PC - PHOSPHO CREATINE….this bond splits in the muscle to allow quick energy but
there is only approximately 10 seconds worth of PC in the muscle
GLYCOGEN is stored Glucose or Carbohydrate
TRIGLYCERIDE is stored Fat
MUSCLE FIBRES
Characteristic
Slow Twitch Type 1
Fast Ox Glycolytic Type 2A
Fast Glycolytic Type 2B
Fibre Size
Small
Large
Large
No. of Mitochondria
Large
Modertate
Small
No. of Capillaries
Large
Moderate
Small
Myoglobin Content
High
Moderate
Low
PC Stores
Low
High
High
Glycogen Stores
Low
High
High
Triglyceride Stores
High
Moderate
Low
FUNCTIONAL DIFFERENCES
Speed of Contraction
Slow
Fast
Fastest
Force of Contraction
Low
High
Highest
Resistance to Fatigue
High
Low
Lowest
Aerobic Capacity
High
Low
Lowest
Anaerobic Capacity
Low
High
Highest
ACTIVITY SUITED
Marathon
1500m
100m
WARM UP : 3 Phases
• PULSE RAISER
• MOBILITY EXERCISES– controlled joint movements which rehearse movement
patterns
• STRETCHES
Now explain the impact this will have on the Skeletal Muscle . Think about:
Muscle temp / O2 Dissociation / Nerve Impulse Conduction and Contraction /
Muscle Force, speed and reactions / Elasticity of Muscles / Muscle Viscosity /
Flexibility
COOL DOWN : 2 Phases
• ACTIVE RECOVERY - Pulse Lowering
• STRETCHING – active muscles
Now explain the benefits of this on the Skeletal Muscle Tissue: Think about
Muscle Temperature, Length of Muscles, DOMS risk, Removal of Lactic Acid,
• OSTEOPOROSIS is a weakening of bones caused by a reduction in bone density making them
prone to fracture. Often associated with old women but not exclusive to this group. RISK
FACTORS include inactivity especially in childhood, and sedentary lifestyles.
• PHYSICAL ACTIVITY and HEALTHY DIET are the best defence against it. HIGH IMPACT
ACTIVITY is effective in gaining PEAK BONE DENSITY
• GROWTH PLATE is the delicate area found between the Diaphysis and the Epiphysis in
children. It closes in adult hood. Injuries in this area are common because it is weak. They can
lead to weaknesses in adulthood. Injuries are caused through Impact or REPETITION
exercises.
• OSTEOARTHRITIS is the breakdown and eventual loss of Articular Cartilage. This results in
additional friction, loss of flexibility and pain. Its a DEGENERATIVE disease and is caused by
repetitive use of joints or Impact. Exercise can have a positive benefit to this ailment.
• JOINT STABILITY is the resistance offered by the Musculo Skelatal Tissue that surround joints.
It depends on the Joint Shape, its Ligaments and the Muscle Tone. Exercise strengthens these
structures but high impact can make weak
• MUSCLE POSTURE is when you can carry out activity with efficiency. The muscles responsible
are in the CORE. Muscle Tone and Body Weight are is very important
WARM UP AND COOL DOWN
Devise a warm up and a cool down for an activity of your choice. Follow the models:
Warm Up: 3 Phases
• Pulse raiser
• Mobility – controlled joint movements which rehearse movement patterns
• Stretches
Now explain the impact this will have on the Cardio Respiratory Systems and the Musculo Skeletal Systems. Think about: muscle temp / O2 Dissociation / Nerve Impulse Conduction
and Contraction / Muscle Force, speed and reactions / Synovial Fluid / Elasticity of Muscles /
Distribution of Blood (Vascular Shunt) / Enzyme Activity for cell Respiration
Cool Down: 2 Phases
• Active Recovery / Pulse Lowering
• Stretch Active Muscles
Now explain the benefits of this to; Q (Cardiac Output), Venous Return (VR), Stroke Volume
(SV), Minute Ventilation (VE), Blood Pressure, Muscle Temperature, Length of Muscles,
DOMS risk, Removal of Lactic Acid, Blood Pooling
MOTION
• MOTION is divided into 3 main categories
1) LINEAR MOTION is when a body moves in a straight or curved line with all the aspects
moving at the same speed, at the same time and in the same direction
YouTube - 2007 Skeleton & Bobsled World Cup
YouTube - SHOT PUT MEN - FINAL
2) ANGULAR MOTION is when a body or part of a body moves in a circle or part of a circle
about a point called the AXIS OF ROTATION
YouTube - Nastia Liukin 2008 Beijing Olympics Team Finals- Uneven Bars
BBC SPORT | Other sport... | Cycling | World record for women pursuit team
3) GENERAL MOTION is a combination of LINEAR and ANGULAR MOTION
YouTube - Contraversial Wheelchair Crash
YouTube - ATHLETICS -- THROWS JAVELIN WOMEN – FINAL
Identify different types of motion in your sport, and then rugby, golf, cricket, track and field
FORCE
….Can perform the following functions
1) Cause a RESTING body to MOVE
2) Cause a MOVING body to change DIRECTION, ACCELERATE or DECELERATE
3) Change an objects SHAPE
NEWTONS LAWS OF MOTION
1ST LAW OF MOTION ….A body continues in a state of rest or uniform velocity (same speed and
direction) unless acted upon by an external force
2ND LAW OF MOTION – THE LAW OF ACCELERATION: When a force acts upon an object, the rate of
change of momentum experienced by the object is proportional to the size of the force and takes
place in the direction in which the force acts
3RD LAW OF MOTION….For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction
FORCE
Effect of Force
Example from a penalty kick in football
A force can cause a body at rest to
move
The force of the footballers boot will cause the ball to move
A force can cause a moving body to
change direction
When the goal keeper puts his hands out to save it he can alter the
direction of the ball and hopefully save the penalty
A force can cause a moving body to
accelerate
When running towards the ball the player can increase his speed
by exerting a larger force against the ground
A force can cause a moving body to
decelerate
If the kick is successful the force of the back of the net will cause
the ball to slow down. Also if the keeper catches the ball he too
can cause the ball to stop moving
A force can cause a body to change
its shape
When the players foot contacts the ball there will be a
deformation of the shape of the ball
CENTRE OF MASS
Mass ….is the amount of material of which a body is made. A football is bigger
than a shot putt but the shot putt has a greater mass, because the material is
heavier.
Centre of Mass…..the point where all of the mass is concentrated. The point in
which it is balanced in all directions
Pin point where you think the Centre of Mass is in the
following objects or bodies
STABILITY
….How stable a body or object is! How difficult it is to disturb a body from its
balanced position
Stability depends on 3 Mechanical Principles
1) Position of the Athletes Centre of Mass
2) Position of the Athletes Line of Gravity
3) Size of the Athlete’s Area of Support
LINE OF GRAVITY
Line of Gravity ….is the
point from the centre of
mass vertically down to
the ground
STABILITY CONTINUUM
Unstable
Less Stable
Stable
Plot on the line as many different sporting techniques as you can. Make sure you
can justify them using the following principles
1) Position of the Athletes Centre of Mass
2) Position of the Athletes Line of Gravity
3) Size of the Athlete’s Area of Support
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CENTRE OF MASS
AND APPLICATION OF FORCE
When a force is applied, the direction of this force in relation to an objects centre
of mass will determine whether the motion will be angular motion or linear
motion
Direct Force…when the force applied goes through the centre of mass
Eccentric Force…when the force applied passes outside of the centre of mass
causing the resulting motion to be angular
Watch the clip and explain this using a Free Kick
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pb2qykj6_ZU
CONDUCTION SYSTEM
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This is the ELECTRICAL IMPULSE responsible for stimulating the heart to
contract. The heart is MYOGENIC (stimulates its own impulse) .
The impulse originates in the SINO ATRIAL (SA) NODE located in the
posterior wall of the right atrium. It is the PACEMAKER and travels through
the left and right atrial walls
Both ATRIA then CONTRACT. The Ventricles do not at this point because
they are INSULATED . The impulse makes it way to the ATRIO
VENTRICULAR (AV) NODE in the inferior aspect of the right atrium
When the atria finish contracting the Impulse is then sent down the BUNDLE
OF HIS fibres which run down the Septum and into the PURKINJE FIBRES
which surround the left and right ventricle. When the impulse reaches these
both VENTRICLES CONTRACT
Both Ventricles RELAX and the next IMPULSE is released from the SA Node
THE CARDIAC CYCLE
• This is the events of ONE HEART BEAT. At rest it lasts 0.8 seconds and is
repeated approximately x 72 times per minute. There are 2 Phases
A) DIASTOLE is The RELAXATION phase lasting 0.5 seconds
B) SYSTOLE is the CONTRACTION phase lasting 0.3 seconds. There are 2 parts
to Systole. ATRIAL SYSTOLE and VENTRICULAR SYSTOLE
DIASTOLE (0.5 seconds)
• Both Atria fill with blood. AV valves are closed
• Atrial Blood Pressure rises above Ventricular Pressure
• Increased blood pressure forces AV valves open. Blood eases into Ventricles
SYSTOLE (0.3 seconds)
• Both atria contract FORCING the remaining atrial blood into ventricles
• Semi Lunar Valves Remain Closed
Both of these are ATRIAL SYSTOLE
• Both Ventricles contract increasing ventricular pressure
• Aortic and Pulmonary Valves forced open. AV valves closed
• Blood is forced into the Aorta and the Pulmonary Artery
• Diastole of next cycle begins. SL Valves close stopping backflow of blood
THESE 4 ASPECTS MAKE UP VENTRICULAR SYSTOLE
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RESTING HEART VALUES
If we measure the hearts OUTPUT we can measure its PERFORMANCE.
HEART RATE is the amount of times the VENTRICLES beat in 1
minute. The average is approximately 72. BRADYCARDIA is when the
rate is below 60. This is because of a large STROKE VOLUME because
there has been HYPERTROPHY of the VENTRICULAR WALL.
STROKE VOLUME is the amount of blood ejected when a ventricle
CONTRACTS. It is the difference of the blood in the ventricle before the
contraction (END DIASTOLIC VOLUME) and the volume of blood in the
ventricle AFTER the contraction (END SYSTOLIC VOLUME). Therefore
STROKE VOLUME = EDV – ESV measured in millilitres
CARDIAC OUTPUT (Q) is the RELATIONSHIP between HR and SV
Q (L/min) = STROKE VOLUME (ml per beat) X HEART RATE (BPMs)
1) If your EDV is 130ml and your ESV is 60ml calculate your Stroke
Volume. If your Heart Rate is 72 BPMs use this to calculate your Q.
2) During the season your Q is 5L/min but your Resting Heart Rate is 60
BPM, what is your resting SV? Explain why your SV may have increased.
3) Explain why HR decreases and SV increases in Trained athletes?
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CARDIO VASCULAR VALUES DURING EXERCISE- STROKE VOLUME
During exercise SV increases LINEARLY until the athlete reaches 40-60% of
their maximum speed. Then it PLATEAUS which means that MAXIMAL
Stroke Volume values are reached during SUB MAXIMAL (Aerobic) exercise.
Stroke Volume increases from approximately 70ml to 120-140ml.
Stroke Volume can INCREASE but it depends on 2 factors
VENOUS RETURN (blood returning to heart). VR reduces in High Intensity
The VENTRICLE’S ability to STRETCH
The heart’s capacity to EMPTY depends on 2 factors
Increased EDV stretches the walls
This increased stretch increases the VENTRICULAR CONTRACTILITY
forcing the blood out of the Ventricles when only 50% is pumped out at rest
A) An athlete who starts to work towards their MAXIMAL LEVEL (Aerobic
Threshold). They have reached their maximal SV. How can they possibly get
their Q to increase and continue exercising? Explain also why the athlete may
see a reduction in SV as he reaches his maximal intensity
B) Explain why SV is reached during sub maximal exercise, and why it even
decreases just before maximal intensity is reached
C) Draw a graph to represent SV increase. X axis = speed Y Axis = millilitres
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CARDIO VASCULAR VALUES DURING EXERCISE- HEART RATE
Heart rate increases just before exercise. This is called the ANTICIPATORY
RISE and is caused by a rush of ADRENALIN which stimulates the SA node
Heart Rate increases and decreases as EXERCISE INTENSITY increases and
decreases
Heart Rate SLOWS down just before MAX Heart Rate is reached
Heart Rate reaches a PLATEAU during SUB MAXIMAL (Aerobic) exercise.
This is called a STEADY STATE.
Heart Rate DECREASES RAPIDLY after exercise during RECOVERY
because of reduced demand for O2
During recovery it will stay above Resting Values to allow the body to repay its
OXYGEN DEBT. The greater the O2 Debt, the longer the recovery
Draw a graph to represent 2 performers. One is an athlete who has gone
jogging at medium intensity for 30 minutes over even terrain. The second
athlete is training for 30 minutes over increasingly difficult terrain at medium
to high intensity. They are both male 16 years olds. The Y axis should
represent Heart Rate from 0 to 200 BPMs and the X Axis represents 3 aspects
of time 1) Prior to exercise 0 to 10 minutes 2) Exercise 30 minutes 3)
Recovery 30 minutes Label all the above concepts on your graph
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CARDIO VASCULAR VALUES DURING EXERCISE- CARDIAC OUTPUT
Q increases in a LINEAR relationship with exercise intensity from RESTING
VALUES of approximately 5L/min to MAXIMAL VALUES of between 20 to
40L/min in Highly Trained Endurance athletes
When an athlete reaches 40 – 60% of his MAXIMAL INTENSITY his Stroke
Volume PLATEAUS. Therefore any further increases in Q are because of
INCREASED HEART RATE
The CARDIOVASCULAR DRIFT is the gradual decrease in SV and increase
in HR during prolonged exercise
1) Explain what causes the Cardio Vascular Drift
2) Use the Units given to draw 3 graphs of the response to exercise of Cardiac
Output, Stroke Volume and Heart Rate. The X Axis represents Time – Before
Exercise, Exercise and Recovery. The Y Axis should represent the units each
of the above is measured in
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THE CARDIAC CONTROL CENTRE (CCC)
The heart is CONTROLLED and REGULATED by the CARDIAC CONTROL
CENTRE situated in the MEDULLA OBLONGATA in the brain
It is controlled by the AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (ANS) which is
INVOLUNTARY and consists of SENSORY NERVES (these transmit
information from sense receptors to the CCC) or MOTOR NERVES (these
transmit information from the muscles to the CCC )
Sensory Nerves and Motor Nerves can both be part of the SYMPATHETIC
NERVOUS SYSTEM (this INCREASES heart rate using the ACCELERATOR
NERVE) or PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (this DECREASES
heart rate using the VAGUS NERVE). They can do this to your heart rate by
sending information to the SA NODE to increase or decrease its IMPULSE.
The CCC receives information about 3 FACTORS:
1) NEURAL CONTROL: information sent by PROPRIOCEPTORS (in joints,
muscles, and tendons which detect MOVEMENT), and by
CHEMORECEPTORS (which detect pH and 02 & C02 changes in the muscles
and aorta) and BAROCEPTORS (which sends info about blood vessel width)
2) HORMONAL CONTROL: This detects ADRENALIN levels in the body
3) INTRINSIC CONTROL: This detects TEMPERATURE and VENOUS
RETURN. Both can increase or decrease stimulation of the SA Node
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VENOUS RETURN
Blood vessels have 3 layers except capillaries .They are 1 cell thick for 02/C02
DIFFUSION and GASEOUS EXCHANGE.
ARTERIES and ARTERIOLES can VASODILATE (widen) or
VASOCONSTRICT (narrow) to allow more or to restrict blood flow
ARTERIOLES have PRE CAPILLARY SPHINCTERS which can close or
open to allow blood flow into the capillaries or to shut it off
Large VEINS have VALVES to prevent the backflow of blood. Veins and
Venules can VENOCONSTRICT (narrow) and VENODILATE (widen)
VENOUS RETURN is the transport of blood from the capillaries through
VENULES into VEINS and back to the heart’s RIGHT ATRIUM
STARLINGS LAW states that Stroke Volume depends on the volume of VR.
There are 5 VENOUS RETURN MECHANISMS which help maintain VR
POCKET VALVES: Prevent the backflow of blood
MUSCLE PUMP: Veins are situated near muscle. When the muscle contracts
it squeezes the vein and moves the blood along
RESPIRATORY PUMP: The same thing happens in the Chest Cavity
SMOOTH MUSCLE: This is the contraction of the muscles inside the veins
GRAVITY: Blood in the Upper Body returns to the heart more easily
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VASCULAR SHUNT MECHANISM
At REST Q (Cardiac Output) is distributed as follows: 15 – 20% is supplied to
the MUSCLES and 80 – 85% supplies the ORGANS
During EXERCISE Q is REDISTRIBUTED: 80 – 85% to the WORKING
MUSCLES, Organs have reduced supply except the BRAIN. In MODERATE
EXERCISE blood flow to the SKIN increases (to reduce TEMPERATURE)
but in HIGH INTENSITY it REDUCES (because the need for O2 is greater)
The DISTRIBUTION and REDISTRIBUTION of blood is controlled by the
VASOMOTOR CONTROL CENTRE (VCC) It works like the CCC. It is also in
the medulla oblongata. It receives information from BAROCEPTORS and
CHEMORECEPTORS and the VCC then VASO CONSTRICTS or
VASODILATES the ARTERIOLES & PRE CAPILLARY SPHINCTERS
Blood vessels have 3 layers except capillaries .They are 1 cell thick for 02/C02
DIFFUSION and GASEOUS EXCHANGE.
ARTERIES and ARTERIOLES can VASODILATE (widen) or
VASOCONSTRICT (narrow) to allow more or to restrict blood flow
ARTERIOLES have PRE CAPILLARY SPHINCTERS which can close or
open to allow blood flow into the capillaries or to shut it off
Large VEINS have VALVES to prevent the backflow of blood. Veins and
Venules can VENOCONSTRICT (narrow) and VENODILATE (widen)
02 AND C02 TRANSPORT
Blood carries 02 and C02. Oxygen is transported in two ways:
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1) 97% is transported in RED BLOOD CELLS on HEAMOGLOBIN(Hb). It has
a HIGH AFFINITY for 02. Each molecule one can carry 4 molecules of 02.
This is called OXYHEAMOGLOBIN ( Hb02) 2) 3% is carried in the PLASMA
• C02 is transported in 3 ways:
1) 70% combines with water in red blood cells as CARBONIC ACID
2) 23% carried on HEAMOGLOBIN as CARBAMINOHEAMOGLOBIN (HbC02)
3) 7% is dissolved in the PLASMA
• Efficient 02 and C02 transport can prolong AEROBIC and ANAEROBIC
exercise, delay the ANAEROBIC THRESHOLD, and speed up RECOVERY
• A WARM UP speeds up the VASCULAR SHUNT MECHANISM, increase body
TEMPERATURE (which increases ENZYME production for muscle
contraction and decreases BLOOD VISCOSITY improving blood flow) It
delays OBLA (The Onset of Blood Lactate Accumulation – this is point at
which the body produces LACTIC ACID faster than it can get remove it)
• COOL DOWN prevents POOLING, helps VR, SV,Q and removes LACTIC ACID
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Cigarettes contains CARBON MONOXIDE (CO). Hb has a higher AFFINITY
to CO than 02 by over 240 times. VEHICLE POLLUTION also contains CO.
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BLOOD PRESSURE (Bp)
Blood Pressure is the PRESSURE exerted by the BLOOD against the BLOOD
VESSEL walls. It is usually calculated as: = SYSTOLIC Bp / DIASTOLIC Bp
The average pressure is 120mmHg / 80 mmHg (millilitres of mercury) in the
Aorta. It can also be expressed as: = BLOOD FLOW (Q) X RESISTANCE.
The resistance is the FRICTION of the blood cells against the vessel wall. This
is called VISCOSITY (fluid friction)
VASODILATION and VASOCONSTRICTION can decrease and increase Bp. It
is measured using a SPHYGMOMANOMETER
Factors such as STRESS, DIET can affect Bp. EXERCISE can also affect it
In ENDURANCE training Systolic Pressure increases LINEARLY to the
intensity. Diastolic pressure changes little during SUB MAX exercise but may
DECREASE in LOCALISED areas EG: In specific working muscles
In RESISTANCE training powerful muscle contractions BLOCK blood flow.
This INCREASES exercise systolic and diastolic Bp, but not resting Bp
In RECOVERY systolic and diastolic Bp REDUCES below resting Bp
temporarily. This can have an effect on reducing HYPERTENSION
HYPERTENSION is prolonged high blood pressure which causes CORONARY
HEART DISEASES(CHD). It is associated with SEDENTARY LIFESTYLES
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IMPACT OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ON THE CV SYSTEM
CORONARY HEART DISEASES – 4 (CHDs) are the single largest cause of
death in the western world. It is 3 times more likely in SEDENTARY people.
1) ARTERIOSCLEROSIS is the loss of ELASTICITY, and HARDENING of the
blood vessel. This reduces the ability of the vessel to VASODILATE and
VASOCONSTRICT . It affects your Bp and VASCULAR SHUNT. Smoking can
accelerate this process
2) ATHEROSCLEROSIS is a form of the above which lines the arteries with
CHOLESTEROL and FATTY DEPOSITS causing PLAQUE. This reduces the
width (LUMEN) of the vessel and increases risk of BLOOD CLOTS as it
causes a high Bp, HYPERTENSION and decreases BLOOD FLOW
3) HEART: ANGINA is a partial blockage of the CORONARY ARTERY
reducing 02 supply to the VENTRICULAR and ATRIAL walls
4) HEART ATTACK: is a severe, sudden or total RESTRICTION of 02 to the
Heart Muscle Wall. It can cause permanent damage and death. It is usually a
result of BLOOD CLOTS.
• PHYSICAL ACTIVITY protects us from this risk. IMPROVED DIET,
refraining from SMOKING. If you have 1 risk factor you may double your
chance of CHD, but 3 risk factors increase the risk by 5 times
• The WORLD HEALTH ORGANISATION makes many recommendations
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IMPACT OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ON THE CV SYSTEM
We can LESSEN the RISK of CHD.
Improving Heart HYPERTROPHY and VASCULARISATION (increase
size and capacity of coronary circulation)
Decreasing BLOOD FIBRINOGEN which reduces clotting
Decreasing BLOOD LIPIDS (triglyceride and cholesterol)
Decreasing LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS (LDL) – high in cholesterol
Increase HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS (HDL) – these scavenge the
cholesterol in the blood
Lower resting Bp and reduce HYPERTENSION
Reduce OBESITY
Alleviate STRESS
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4)
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MECHANICS OF RESPIRATION
The 3 main FUNCTIONS of the Respiratory System are 1) PULMONARY
VENTILATION (breathing air in and out) 2) EXTERNAL RESPIRATION is
the exchange of 02 and C02 at the ALVEOLI 3) INTERNAL RESPIRATION
is the exchange of 02 and C02 between the MUSCLES and BLOOD
INSPIRATION is breathing in and EXPIRATION is breathing out. Changes
in lung VOLUME is initiated by the RESPIRATORY MUSCLES. 5 STEPS:
Muscles ACTIVELY contract or PASSIVELY relax which cause ..
MOVEMENT of the ribs, sternum and abdomen which cause...
The THORACIC CAVITY to increase or decrease in VOLUME which causes .
The LUNG AIR PRESSURE to increase or decrease which causes ..
INSPIRATION or EXPIRATION to occur
At REST the muscles that CONTRACT to cause INSPIRATION are the
DIAPHRAGM and the EXTERNAL INTERCOSTAL muscles. During
EXPIRATION at REST these muscles relax and are PASSIVE
During EXERCISE we have to recruit the STERNOCLEIDOMASTOID,
SCALENES and PECTORALIS MINOR in INSPIRATION. In EXPIRATION
Ex Intercostals & Diaphragm STILL relax BUT we now CONTRACT the
INTERNAL INTERCOSTALS ,RECTUS ABDOMINUS and OBLIQUES
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LUNG VOLUMES
TIDAL VOLUME (TV) is the volume of air INSPIRED or EXPIRED per
BREATH. At REST this is approximately 500ml. During EXERCISE this can
increase by 3 / 4 litres
FREQUENCY (f) is the number of breaths taken in one minute. Sometimes
referred to as RESPIRATORY RATE. At REST it is approximately 12 – 15.
During EXERCISE this can increase to 40 to 60 breaths
MINUTE VENTILATION (VE) is the VOLUME of air INSPIRED or
EXPIRED in one minute. At REST this is approximately 6 to 7.5 L/min.
During EXERCISE this can increase to between 120 to 180 L/min if trained
VE = TV x f
During SUB MAXIMAL exercise TV and f increase to allow for a greater VE
but during MAXIMAL INTENSITY exercise only an increase in f will allow
for more VE because it takes too long in time to increase TV
1) If an athlete has a resting TV value of 500ml and a respiratory frequency
of 12, calculate their VE
2) Explain why the athlete should increase their f to 24 and their TV to
4000ml per breath during exercise would be beneficial to an aerobic athlete
GASEOUS EXCHANGE
• Gaseous Exchange is the exchange of 02 and C02. It relies on DIFFUSION
which is movement of gases from an area of HIGH PRESSURE to an area of
LOW PRESSURE. Gases ALWAYS do this. The difference between these 2
pressures is called the DIFFUSION GRADIENT. The BIGGER the gradient,
the more DIFFUSION and GASEOUS EXCHANGE can occur.
• The PARTIAL PRESSURE (PP) of gases is the amount of pressure a gas
exerts on other gases in the same area. EG: When blood is OXYGENTATED it
has a HIGH PARTIAL PRESSURE (PP) of 02 and a LOW PARTIAL
PRESSURE (PP) of C02. The opposite is true in DEOXYGENATED blood.
• PARTIAL PRESURES can occur in 2 locations.
1) EXTERNAL RESPIRATION: This is at the ALVEOLI. HIGH PP of 02
diffuse from the alveoli to the capillary where the PP of 02 is LOW. Similarly
a HIGH PP of C02 in the capillary diffuses to the alveoli where the PP of C02
is LOW
2) INTERNAL RESPIRATION: This is at the point where the capillaries
surround the MUSCLES. A HIGH PP of 02 in the capillaries diffuse into the
muscle where there is a LOW PP of 02. Similarly a HIGH PP of C02 in the
muscles diffuse out to the capillaries where the PP of C02 is LOW
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GASEOUS EXCHANGE DURING EXERCISE
Both Internal and External Respiration INCREASE during exercise to supply
the 02 to the working muscles
The OXYGEN – HAEMOGLOBIN DISSOCIATION CURVE is a graph which
informs us about how much HAEMOGLOBIN is SATURATED with 02 in
both the LUNGS and in the MUSCLE TISSUE. Dissociation is when 02
unloads from Haemoglobin.
At REST: In EXTERNAL respiration there is a PP of 02 of 100mmHg in the
alveoli. The blood then travels to the muscles. In INTERNAL respiration at
the muscles the PP of 02 is 40mmHg
Draw the Graph. The X Axis has Units of mmHg ranging from 0 to
100mmHg. The Y Axis has Units of % 02 Saturation of Haemoglobin
ranging from 0 to 100%. Now plot the Curve using the following data:
mmHg
0
20
40
60
80
100
% Saturation
0
30
75
90
96
98
Now label the X Axis to identify PP of 02 in Muscle Tissue = 40mmHg
Now label the X Axis to identify PP of 02 in the Lungs = 100 mmHg
Now calculate the Percentage Saturation of Haemoglobin in Muscle Tissue
and in the Lungs. What is the percentage difference? What has happened?
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Therefore at REST approximately 25% of the 02 that is carried by the
Haemoglobin is UNLOADED into the muscles. If we can increase this
percentage we can have a more efficient athlete who will perform higher
The DIFFUSION GRADIENT is the difference between 2 PPs of the same
gas. The bigger the Gradient the more diffusion takes place
During EXERCISE the muscles are using more 02, and are producing more
C02. Therefore Deoxygenated blood coming back to the lungs via the heart
has a HIGH PP of C02 and a LOW PP of 02. At EXTERNAL RESPIRATION
the blood reaches the capillaries that surround the alveoli, this means that
C02 diffuses QUICKER into the lungs and out of the body and that 02
diffuses QUICKER into the capillaries because the DIFFUSION GRADIENT
is higher. This means that HAEMOGLOBIN is almost FULLY SATURATED
At INTERNAL RESPIRATION 4 factors have the effect of moving the graph
line to the right. They are 1) Increase in TEMPERATURE 2) Decrease in PP
of 02 in the Muscles 3) Increase in PP of C02 in Muscles 4) BOHR EFFECT
which is an increase in ACIDITY because of LACTIC ACID. Plot the graph
mmHg
0
20
40
60
80
100
% Saturation
0
20
50
80
93
100
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Calculate the Percentage uptake now. What has happened?
VENTILATORY RESPONSE TO LIGHT, MODERATE AND HEAVY EXERCISE
Draw the following graph: X Axis = Units = Time: 3 parts A) Pre Exercise
From -3 minutes to 0 minutes B) Exercise from 0 minutes to 5 minutes C)
Recovery from 5 to 7 minutes. Y Axis Units = Minute Volume (VE) from 0 to
140 L/minute. Now plot the following coordinates for the 3 Exercise Lines
-3 min
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7 min
Light
15
17
20
30
60
65
65
63
64
21
20
Mod
15
18
21
40
90
95
97
98
99
38
30
Heavy
15
19
60
60
118
120
125
130
130
65
50
Annotate the following on your graph:
• Identify the ANTICIPATORY RISE
• Identify PLATEAUS
• Identify SLOW but Continued Increase in VE just before Maximal Intensity
• Identify the RAPID DECREASE in VE
• Identify a SLOW but gradual DECREASE towards resting VE
CAN YOU EXPLAIN HOW THE BODY
REGULATES AND CONTROLS THIS
RESPRATORY CONTROL CENTRE (RCC)
• The RCC REGULATES and CONTROLS Pulmonary Respiration (Breathing).
Like the CCC and the VCC it is also controlled in the medulla oblongata. The
Mechanic of Breathing is CONTROLLED by the RESPIRATORY MUSCLES
which are INVOLUNTARY muscles. The RCC controls them and has 2 areas
1) The INSPIRATORY CENTRE This works during both REST AND during
EXCERCISE. It sends messages from the RCC along the PHRENIC NERVE to
the DIAPHRAGM and along the INTERCOSTAL NERVES to the
INTERCOSTAL MUSCLES. When an IMPULSE reaches these muscles they
CONTRACT to increase Lung Volume. When they are not stimulated they
RELAX which decreases Lung Volume. During Exercise it also stimulates the
STERNOCLEIDOMASTOID, the SCALENES and PECTORALIS MINOR
2) The EXPIRATORY CENTRE only works during EXERCISE. It does this to
further INCREASE the DEPTH and FREQUENCY. This centre sends an
impulse to the Expiratory Muscles which are the INTERNAL
INTERCOSTALS, the RECTUS ABDOMINUS and the OBLIQUES
• CHEMORECEPTORS detect increase PP C02, decrease PP 02 and Lactic Acid
• PROPRIOCEPTORS detect joint and muscle movement
• THERMORECEPTORS detect changes in Temperature
• BAROCEPTORS detect stretches in the lungs
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ALTITUDE – THE EFFECTS ON THE RESPIRATORY CENTRE
When exercising at ALTITUDE it has a significant effect on respiration.
Altitude is height of 1500 ms+ above SEA LEVEL. At altitude the PP of 02 is
HYPOXIC. This means it is massively reduced. This decreases performance
BUT training at altitude is an ERGOGENIC AID (improves performance)
Due to HYPOXIC conditions the body learns to ADAPT by increasing the
bodies amount of EPO which increases your RED BLOOD CELL count. You
also gain CAPILLARISATION (an increase in capillaries). The main effect is
that when you RETURN to sea level your AEROBIC capacity improves
Altitude Training is EXPENSIVE and research does not support it. Any
ADAPTATIONS are SHORT LIVED and are only an advantage for a few days
after High Altitudes can actually PREVENT aerobic athletes from training at
the same INTENSITY or DURATION and so V02 MAX (Maximum 02
Consumption) is reduced. ANAEROBIC events may benefit however.
There are 3 methods of Altitude Training
A) LIVE HIGH TRAIN HIGH (LHTH)
B) LIVE LOW TRAIN HIGH (LLTH)
C) LIVE HIGH TRAIN LOW (LHTL)
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4 ADAPTATIONS TO THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Training increases the bodies ability to transport 02, increase AEROBIC
CAPACITY and increase the LACTATE THRESHOLD
There are 4 specific ADAPTATIONS
1) RESPIRATORY STRUCTURES increase number of alveoli, increased
elasticity and endurance
2) BREATHING MECHANICS increase strength, power, endurance and
decreased fatigue of the RESPIRATORY MUSCLES
3) RESPIRATORY VOLUMES: Lung Volumes do not change much but TIDAL
VOLUME can during MAXIMAL intensity. Maximal VE increases.
FREQUENCY decreases at rest but increases during Maximal Intensity
4) DIFFUSION remains unchanged at rest but increases during maximal
exercise
• The main PERFORMANCE BENEFITS are improved AEROBIC
PERFORMANCE, increased ENDURANCE, delay of ANAEROBIC
THRESHOLD, increased EFFICIENCY and more HEALTHY
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EFFECTS OF ASTHMA AND SMOKING ON THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
ASTHMA is a narrowing of the airways (BRONCHOCONSTRICTION) in
response to a TRIGGER or an ALLERGEN. Its symptoms include
WHEEZING, BREATHLESSNESS , MUCUS PRODUCTION and COUGHING
It is measured using a SPIROMETER which measures EXHALED air
volume. People are said to have asthma if this volume increases with
treatment. The IOC allows 15% improvement for 1 sec after treatment
TRIGGERS include drying and water loss in the airways, and exercise. This is
called EIA (EXERCISE INDUCED ASTHMA). This is common in cold
weather sports where the air is DRY and when pollutants are use on ice rinks.
ALLERGENS include exhaust fumes, pollen, dust, air pollutants and pollens
MEDICATION include ‘Relievers’ coded BLUE which relax airway muscles. A
Daily dose of CORTICOSTEROIDS ‘Preventers’ coded non blue suppress
chronic inflammation and improve pre exercise lung function.
NON MEDICAL TREATMENTS include a 10 to 30 min WARM UP which
provides a 2 hour REFRACTORY period. DIET of reduced salt and fish oils
both reduce EIA. Caffeine helps but the IOC limit is 12mg/ml. INSPIRATORY
MUSCLE TRAINING (IMT) can strengthen the RESPIRATORY MUSCLES
SMOKING impairs development in TEENAGERS, impairs LUNG FUNCTION
and increases likelihood of DISEASES and INFECTIONS