Argumentation
What is argumentation?
Sure, we all can think of
many situations
where we have fights
with people, but what
is argumentation and
why does it deserve
its own fancy name?
Glad you asked…
• Argumentation is a reasoned, logical way
of convincing an audience of the
soundness of a position, belief, or
conclusion.
Argumentation takes a stand—supported by
evidence—and urges people to share the
writer’s perspectives and insights.
Does this have something to do
with those dead Greek guys?
Of course!!! The ancient Greeks thought
that people who could really let fly a good
argument were the rock stars of their age.
Follow the rules!!!
Aristotle and other ancient Greeks designed
a series of rules for public speaking (that
also apply to writing) to ensure that ideas
are presented fairly and logically.
Argument vs. Persuasion
Although the two terms are often used interchangeably in everyday speech, they are
not equivalent.
Hey, wouldn’t it be fun to guess the
difference between them?!!!
Persuasion
Persuasion is a general term that refers to
how a writer moves an audience to adopt
a belief or follow a course of action.
To persuade an audience, a writer relies on
various appeals – to the emotions, to
reasons, or to ethics.
Sorry…off topic…
Argument
Argument is the appeal to reason (and only
uses this appeal)
A writer does not try to move an audience to
direct action, but rather to demonstrate
that ideas are valid.
Argument also has a formal structure.
Types of Appeals
Logos: appeal to logic
Pathos: Appeal to Emotion
Ethos: Ethical Appeal
Ethos is the ethical standing of the speaker
or writer. It is often confused with making
an ethical argument in general.
Ethos? Pathos? Logos?
Going Beyond Ethos, Pathos,
Logos: Modern Appeals
These appeals are ranked from the MOST
ethical to the LEAST ethical ways of
making an argument.
1. Reason: Facts, Figures, Evidence
#2 Altruism
Appeal to our better selves.
#3 Common Sense
What we know…
“We all know that times
are hard these
days…”
“We all know that you
can’t teach an old dog
new tricks…”
#4 Patriotism
Appeal to common base of knowledge and
values.
#5 Common Experience
“We all have had times when things have
not gone as planned…”
“Who hasn’t felt the excitement of rooting for
the winning team and the despair of being
on the losing side?”
Warning: These next appeals can
be downright unethical!
#6: Appeal to Authority (“Because I said
so…because God says…”)
#7 Self-Interest
“Elect me because I will lower your taxes.”
“No immigration – we need all the jobs for
ourselves!”
Emotions (type of emotion = how
ethical the appeal will be)
Love, honor…
Hate, fear…
Prejudice
You should not make an argument based on
this appeal!
What type of appeal to choose?
The type of appeal depends on whether
your audience is friendly, neutral, or hostile
to your proposal.
Here are some ways to get your
audience on your side…
EMPATHY!
First person plural: “We…”
Common Group: “My fellow…”
Another way to get audience on
your side:
COMPLIMENTS
“this distinguished audience…”
Yet another way to get audience on
your side:
URGENCY
“…in this time of crisis…”
Audience still not on your side?
Try…
APPEAL TO COMMON
SUFFERING
“I feel your pain…”
One last…
DESIRE TO HELP
“I just want you to be happy…”
Types of Evidence
FACT
Statements most
people agree are true
and can be verified
independently.
E.g., statistics. Most
important type of
evidence.
Types of Evidence: Opinions
Interpretation of facts.
Opinions of experts
more convincing than
the opinions of
inexperienced people
Evidence Should Be:
•
•
•
Relevant.
Representative: full range of opinions on
a subject and not just one side or the
other.
Sufficient. (skeptical audience needs
more evidence!)
Deal with the Oppostion
Refute the arguments against your position.
State the objections to your case and
explain why your own arguments are
sound.
Make your point using:
Deductive or Inductive Logic
More on this later!!!
Also, watch out for logical fallacies
When your argument just doesn’t make
sense!
You will learn the names for the different
types of logical fallacies soon…
Did you learn a lot?
Here’s your payment….
Just kidding…what I meant to say is that you no doubt are enriched by
new knowledge!