Knowledge Management
Knowledge Management
Baskar Subbarao
Sarah Sullivan
Michael Tobin
Knowledge management reflects a point made by Lew Platt,
former CEO of Hewlett-Packard: "If HP knew what HP knows,
we would be three times as profitable."
1
Ref. 28
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Knowledge Management
Introduction - KM
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Before something can be managed, it must
be understood.
A discussion of Knowledge Management
must start with
–
–
–
2
Data & Data Management
Information & Information Management
Knowledge & Knowledge Management
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Knowledge Management
Background of Knowledge Management
Although “knowledge” and “management” have been around for a long period
of time, the topic of “Knowledge Management” is fairly new and is generating
much interest and study.
Neither information management, nor information and communication
technology are the same as Knowledge Management.
Information management is data based and generally addresses information
which can be processed by the programming of computers. Information
management has influenced knowledge management and indeed plays a role
in the knowledge management process.
Information and communication technology (ICT) often act as a catalyst for
Knowledge Management. The availability and development ICT has facilitated
the Knowledge Management process.
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Knowledge Management
Knowledge Management
Data
Information
Data Management
4
Knowledge
Information Management
© Subbarao, Sullivan, Tobin 2001
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Knowledge Management
Background of Knowledge Management
DATA:
Data includes Facts, figures, statistics
Data is easy to store, sort, and manipulate (it is
greatly enhanced by ICT)
Data is clear cut and concise
Data is of limited value by itself
Data is very easy to share
EXAMPLES OF “DATA”
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Knowledge Management
Data and Data Management
Data
Information
Knowledge
DATA is a collection of discrete, factual records
Data Management
The storage and addressability of data.
Purpose - Ensure that data resources are continuously
available for manipulation and interpretation.
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Knowledge Management
Background of Knowledge Management
INFORMATION:
Information consists of patterns of data
Information is developed when people analyze Data and
put into useable terms
How the Data is interpreted can change from one person
to another
The value of Information is increased over raw Data, but
so is ambiguity
Information is relatively easy to share, open to various
interpretations
EXAMPLES OF “INFORMATION”
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Ref. 11
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Knowledge Management
Information Management
Data
Information
Knowledge
Information is meaningful organization of data that is
communicated.
It is a complex function with
Specific intentions of the originator
Specific context
Depends on interpretation by recipient.
Specific goal
Information Management
Management of the communication channels that run between
the people in an enterprise.
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Knowledge Management
Background of Knowledge Management
KNOWLEDGE:
Knowledge is the information inside people’s minds
Knowledge is the understanding of the information & data
Knowledge is very valuable
Sharing of knowledge is much more difficult than the
sharing of data or information
The creation of knowledge in organizations is a collective
process of sense making.
EXAMPLES OF “KNOWLEDGE”
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Ref. 7
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Knowledge Management
Knowledge
Data
Information
Knowledge
Knowledge is the meaningful organization of information.
Knowledge includes Data, Information and personal experience
& know how
Knowledge consists of Explicit knowledge and Tacit knowledge
Results in a greater use and sharing of valuable information and
thus eliminates the need for everyone to “reinvent the wheel”
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Knowledge Management
Background of Knowledge Management
KNOWLEDGE
Knowledge in people’s heads is the most important resource a company has.
Only a small amount of a company’s knowledge is available in exchangeable
data files.
It is the explicit and tacit knowledge which makes up the knowledgebase of a
company.
Explicit Knowledge
Explicit knowledge is easy to code, it comes in the form of books, company
policy manuals, mission statements, company documents, databases, reports
and etc.
Tacit Knowledge
Tacit Knowledge is hard to code and extract. It is the practical knowledge on
how to get things done and personal knowledge based on individual
experience. Tacit knowledge is invisible and the most difficult to share.
EXAMPLES OF TACIT KNOWLEDGE:
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Knowledge Management
Managing Knowledge
Managing Knowledge well means creating
an culture that demands, supports,
encourages and rewards the sharing of
knowledge. This includes paying attention to
people and organizational structure, as well
as to the information technology for
knowledge sharing and use.
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Knowledge Management
KM Interview - Accenture
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Knowledge is important for the success of the company.
Knowledge Source - People on the front lines, actually doing the work.
Knowledge Users - Everyone.
Knowledge captured in databases usually self-submitted, sometimes
external.
Distribution – Next generation mobile devices.
KM tools used - Intranet and proprietary software.
People aren't threatened by KM.
Success Criteria – Difficult to measure value. Showing value is
difficult. Support from company leadership is critical.
KM obstacles - Lack of management support, Poor communication
and communication devices, financial resources
Lisa Pappalardo, has a Master’s in Industrial/Organizational psychology
and has been with Accenture for over six and half years.
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Knowledge Management
Have you ever heard of a little
company called General Electric?
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Annual Sales: Roughly $132 billion
Major Products: Power systems, aircraft engines, plastics, television
media, medical systems, consumer finance, corporate finance,
lighting, real estate, insurance, transportation, appliances, to name a
few
Who are GE’s customers? Just about everyone!
Who is the CIO? Gary Reiner, a GE veteran
Who does he report to? The CEO
Ref. 17,22
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Knowledge Management
A case study: General Electric’s
Knowledge Management success
Jack Welch took over in 1981
GE must become:
 Lean, and
 Agile
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Knowledge Management
Why was the change needed?
A decision that should have taken a half an hour would take
months
GE’s numerous reporting layers hindered the flow of
information
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From the top down, and
The bottom up
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Knowledge Management
I mean business

Become either #1 or #2 in its respective area, or face the
consequence of being divested

Welch cut nearly 20% of the global GE workforce
So in his first moves, he let them know he meant business
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Knowledge Management
The culture shifts…
It was at this point that Welch believed the company
was primed for the vision.
Welch began his crusade with changing the culture at GE:
 “Shun the incremental and go for the leap”
 He started with attitudes…
 He started at the top
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Ref. 5
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Knowledge Management
TALK TO ME!!
Welch began:
 The constant interactive process
 Aiming to produce consensus
 Teaching by example that listening was more important than talking
 Emphasizing that Real communication takes “countless hours of
eyeball to eyeball contact”
 Idealizing honesty and clarity as business imperatives
Those managers who could not get on board with GE’s new
vision, well, they had to go
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Ref. 5
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Knowledge Management
Share the vision…
The next steps:
 Ensure that every single employee understood what the business
was trying to achieve
 Engender self-confidence in his people, which he believed to be
central in unfettered organizational communication
“people who were freed from the confines of their box on the
organizational chart, whose status rests on real-world
achievement-those are the people…who share every bit of
information…”
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Ref. 5
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Knowledge Management
See how easy this is?
“Business isn’t complicated. Complications arise when people
are cut off from information they need…”
As people began to feel free to exchange information,
decisions that used to take months were taking minutes
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Ref. 5
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Knowledge Management
Let the games begin!
Corporate Executive Council:
 An intensive 2-day session
 Held quarterly
 To candidly and openly share ideas and
information
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Knowledge Management
And KM takes shape…
Welch soon began 2 extremely significant KM programs:
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Work Out
Best Management Practices
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Knowledge Management
Work Out…
The Work Out Process:
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Based upon the sharing of knowledge internally
Brings thousands of employees together to share knowledge and
perspectives
Fights middle management’s tendency to “do nothing” with ideas
from below
-”hot seat” example
Encourages trust, teamwork, independence and confidence in the
system
Allows for empowerment of the employees, thereby doing more
with less
The goal of Work-Out was to “get to a point where people challenge
their bosses every day”
24
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Knowledge Management
Best Management Practices…
Best Management Practices:
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Based on the gathering of external knowledge
Involves a system whereby
– weaknesses are identified
– superior processes are located
-”Welch goes to market” example
– those processes are communicated
– those practices become embedded in the company through
intensive and extensive training
Ref. 16
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Knowledge Management
If you build it, will they come?
GE employees are continually motivated to participate in KM
programs by:
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Compensation plan overhaul
Stock and bonus awards
Strong cultural promotion of KM
Intense management support of KM
Evaluation criterion for success within GE
Re-defined the internal concept of “loyalty” from “giving time”
to “an affinity among people who want to grapple with the
outside world and win”
Ref. 5
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Knowledge Management
What has this meant to GE?
27
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Ideas developed and implemented as a result of the WorkOut process saved over $200,000 in 1991
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“GE expects a 5 to 1 return on every dollar of working capital
invested”
Ref. 5
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Knowledge Management
Can I get a CIO over here?
In 1996, Welch appointed GE’s first ever CIO, Gary Reiner.
Reiner encouraged employee use of technology in KM by:
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Eliminating other options so the only option left is the one we want
them to take
Get complete company support and commitment, from the top
down
Talk to you internal customers; listen to what works, and what
doesn’t
Ref. 26
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Knowledge Management
Examples of it all coming together:
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Destroy Your Business!!
GE Capital Fleet Services
GENet
GE Answer Center USA
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Knowledge Management
Applying what we have learned for the
future…
As a result of the huge amount of knowledge GE has gained,
GE took on a new 3-prong e-business strategy to improve
yet again in the processes of:
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Making goods
Buying goods
Selling goods
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Knowledge Management
The “make” side…
Digitize internal processes for competitive advantage
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Aims to eliminate manual and paper processes to increase efficiency
Get there by using the Six Sigma process
-Process starts with mapping workflow and determining the cycle
of corresponding actions
-Desired result is to reduce defect rates, improve
productivity, and efficiency
Current implementation identified 1.5 billion in cost savings for
2001
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Ref. 17
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Knowledge Management
The “buy” side…
Apply e-business to improve sourcing and purchasing
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E-Auctioning which provided 480 million in annualized savings in
the first 6 months
The process drives costs down by a competitive, open bidding
process
The price of a each transaction has decreased by
about 8%
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Ref. 17
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Knowledge Management
The “sell” side…
Digitize the online sales process
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New customers are attracted through online offerings
Old customers are migrated to the online system
Online transactions have grown from 0 to over 7 billion in 3
years
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Ref. 17
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Knowledge Management
Other successes resulting from GE’s
KM process…
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Mentor program provides for reverse mentoring for top management,
regular meetings and reviews on e-business learning's and practices,
discussion groups for best practice sharing
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The Six Sigma approach to quality: significantly reducing
manufacturing errors
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2001 won Most Admired Knowledge Enterprises study for worldclass effort in managing knowledge, resulting in superior
performance
(noted in subcategories: Establishing an enterprise culture, management
support for managing knowledge, maximizing the value of intellectual
capital, establishing a culture of continued learning, managing
customer knowledge to increase loyalty/value, manage knowledge to
increase shareholder value.)
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Knowledge Management
GE’s Corporate Values:
All of us…always with unyielding integrity…
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Are passionately focused on driving customer success
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Live Six Sigma Quality…ensure that the customer is always its
beneficiary…and use it to accelerate growth
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Insist on excellence and are intolerant of bureaucracy
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Act in boundaryless fashion…always search for and apply the best ideas
regardless of their source
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Prize global intellectual capital and the people that provide it…teams to
maximize it
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Knowledge Management
GE Values continued…
36
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See change for the growth opportunities it brings…e.g., “e-Business”
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Create a clear, simple, customer-centered vision…and continually
renew and refresh its execution
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Create an environment of “stretch,” excitement, informality and
trust…reward improvements…and celebrate results

Demonstrate…always with infectious enthusiasm for the
customer…the “4-E’s” of GE leadership: the personal Energy to
welcome and deal with the speed of change…the ability to create an
atmosphere that energizes others…the Edge to make difficult
decisions…and the ability to execute
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Knowledge Management
Lessons learned…
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It starts at the top
Don’t be afraid of change
Share ideas, and promote idea sharing
Culture is KEY
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Knowledge Management
What is Knowledge?
Experience
Value
Insights
Knowledge
Requires
human
activity
Tacit
Relevance
Comparison
Consequences
Connection
Conversation
Explicit
Information
Contextual zed
Categorized
Connected
Condensed
Must
inform
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No inherent
meaning
Ref. 1
Data
© Subbarao, Sullivan, Tobin 2001
Information put into
User-actionable
Reports, Records,
Documents, Files
Knowledge and
Information
are symbiotic
Data arranged in
Meaningful pattern
Purpose
Raw facts and
figures
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Knowledge Management
KM Truisms
Perfect information does not equal perfect decisions
Behaviors are not changed by technology alone
Connecting is not sufficient to create value
Example - Collapse of Dot-Coms
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Ref. 27
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Knowledge Management
KM - Possible Benefits
20 % Creative
80% Routine
Without knowledge Management
80 % Creative
Cycle Time Reduction
With knowledge Management
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Ref. 14
TIME
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Knowledge Management
KM - Enablers
Content
41
Community
Computing
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Knowledge Management
KM - Enablers
Content
Community
Explicit Knowledge
42
Computing
Tacit Knowledge
Written or otherwise recorded.
Tacit Knowledge often takes the form
of a mental model:
It can be readily identified, articulated,
captured, shared, and applied.
Beliefs and perspectives so ingrained
that they are difficult to articulate.
Examples - Books, manuals, patents,
databases, reports, libraries, policies,
and procedures.
It's the wisdom and expertise in
people's heads
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Knowledge Management
KM - Enablers
Content
Community
Computing
Community is the most significant differentiator between knowledge
management and information management.
Processes
Collaboration
All community members have a
vested interest.
Members must have a strong
bond that encourages them
to work together.
43
Processes
Include aligning policy, incentives, and
performance measurement with the
forms of collaboration desired.
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Knowledge Management
KM - Enablers
Community
Content
Computing
The requisite backbone of knowledge sharing and the most significant enabler.
Enables
Processes
Enables new types of relationships.
Identify
Connects through hardware,
software, networks, and the like.
Access through data repositories,
browsers, search technology,
Collaboration through chat &
discussion groups, bulletins boards
Capture
Sharing
Storage
Package
Formalize
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Knowledge Management
Essence of Knowledge Management
Tacit
INTELLECTUAL CAPITAL
HUMAN
CAPITAL
(Individual)
–
–
–
–
–
–
Expertise
Experience
Capability
Capacity
Creativity
Adaptability
SOCIAL
CAPITAL
(Team)
–
–
–
–
–
Networks
Relationships
Interactions
Language
Patterning
Explicit
CORPORATE
CAPITAL
(Organization)
– Intellectual
Property
– Processes
– Databases
– Flexibility
KNOWLEDGE
45
Ref. 27
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Knowledge Management
Information and Knowledge
Data
Information
Knowledge
Knowledge
Information
Information and KM is closely linked
People convert knowledge
People Improve their knowledge.
Intellectual asset
46
Information e-mails, memos, reports etc.
Transform well structured
Information (with employees help)
By acquiring information from others
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Knowledge Management
Relationship of IT, IM and KM
Enabler
Human Capital
Individual
Enabler
 Successes
 Lessons Learned
 Relationships
Technology
Innovation
Enabler
47
Social Capital
Team
Ref. 27
 Capability
 Capacity
 Incentives
 Education
 Training
 Connectivity
Corporate Capital
Organization
 Data
 Info
 Mapping
 Software
 Hardware
The Essence of
Knowledge Management
The Essence of
Information Management
The Essence of
Information Technology
Infrastructure
 Teams
 Physical
Assets
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Knowledge Management
Relationship of KM and eBusiness
Different Lenses, Common Focus
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Knowledge Management
Knowledge Management - Aspects
Five aspects to be considered
1. People or personnel (who does the work)
2. Culture, communication, corporate climate, society
(where, when and why the work gets done)
3. Processes (how the work gets done)
4. Resources (what can help work get done better-intellectually)
5. Tools, including technology (what can help work get
done better--physically or mechanically)
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Ref. 2
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Knowledge Management
Knowledge – Types
Experimental
Practical (Skills/Knowledge)
Conceptual
Factual
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Knowledge Management
Knowledge Management Schools
Technocratic
51
Economic
Behavioral
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Knowledge Management
Knowledge Management Schools
Economic
Technocratic
Cartographic
Systems
52
Behavioral
Engineering
Focus
Technology
Maps
Processes
Aim
Knowledge Bases
Knowledge Directories
Knowledge Flows
Example
Xerox, Sharko Films Bain & Co, AT&T
Critical
Success
Factors
Content Validation. Culture/Incentives to Share Knowledge Learning and
Incentives to
Knowledge. Networks to
Information. Unrestricted
provide Content
connect People
Distribution
Principal
Contribution
Knowledge Based Profiles and Directories
Systems
on Internet
Shared Databases
Philosophy
Codification
Capability
Connectivity
HP, Frito-Lay
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Knowledge Management
Knowledge Management Schools
Technocratic
Economic
Behavioral
Commercial
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Focus
Income
Aim
Knowledge Asset
Example
Dow Chemical, IBM
Critical Success
Factors
Specialized Teams, Institutionalized
Process
Principal
Contribution
Intellectual Asset, Register and
Processing System
Philosophy
Commercialization
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Knowledge Management
Knowledge Management Schools
Economic
Technocratic
Organizational
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Spatial
Behavioral
Strategic
Focus
Networks
Space
Mindset
Aim
Knowledge Pooling
Knowledge Exchange
Knowledge Capabilities
Example
BP Amoco, Shell
Skandia, British Airways
Skandia, Unilever
Critical
Success
Factors
Sociable culture
Knowledge
Intermediaries
Design for purpose
Encouragement
Rhetoric Artifacts
Principal
Contribution
Groupware and
Intranets
Access and
Representation Tools
Eclectic
Philosophy
Collaboration
Contactivity
Consciousness
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Knowledge Management
How organizations implement
Knowledge
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Management Intranet
Repository
Decision-support
Groupware
People networks
Map links to expertise
47%
33%
33%
33%
24%
18%
Source: American Society for Training & Development (ASTD) Research
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Knowledge Management
Survey – Definitions
n = 423 Organizations
Knowledge:
The knowledge in the business about customers, products, processes,
competitors, etc. that can be locked away in people’s minds or
electronic form.
Knowledge Management:
The systematic and organized attempt to use knowledge within an
organization to improve performance
The research was conducted among company executives in organizations with
turnover exceeding $350 million a year.
56
Ref. 4
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Knowledge Management
Survey – Knowledge Management Strategy
n = 423 Organizations
Based on definitions, does your company have a KM strategy?
Yes
No
0%
20%
All
57
40%
US
Europe & UK
60%
UK
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Knowledge Management
Survey – Industry Sector
n = 423 Organizations
Financial Services
Industrial Products
Consumer Products
Chemicals, Pharmaceuticals and energy
Information, communication and entertainment
Government
Services
Transport
Others
0%
58
5%
10%
15%
20%
© Subbarao, Sullivan, Tobin 2001
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25%
Knowledge Management
Survey - Status of Knowledge Management Programs
n = 423 Organizations
Which one of the following statements best describes your organizations?
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
Know ledge Management Program in Place
Currently Setting up such a program
Exammining need for such a program
No Program/ Not considering one
Considered and decided against program
US
59
Europe & UK
UK
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50%
Knowledge Management
Survey – KM Drivers, Who is pushing hardest?
n = 345 Organizations in KM Program
What level in the organization pushed / is pushing hardest to have a
KM program?
Board Level
Senior Management
Middle Management
Grass Roots / Employees
Across the Spectrum
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%
All
60
US
Europe & UK
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Knowledge Management
Survey – Current Knowledge Problems
n = 413
Difficulty capturing tacit knowledge
Reinventing the wheel
Not using technology to share knowledge
effectively
No time to Share knowledge
Information overload
0%
20%
With KM Program (161)
61
40%
60%
80%
Without KM Program (252)
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Knowledge Management
ROLE OF CKO
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Create knowledge sharing culture
Provide leadership and Strategy
Secure resources
Promote best practices and outcomes
Champion Education
Champion communities of practice
Create and Use Common Language
Provide Tools & Technology
Use incentives and Awards
Measure outcomes
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Knowledge Management
12 Guiding Principles of KM
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Ref.
Knowledge is messy
Knowledge is self-organizing
Knowledge seeks community
Knowledge travels via language
The more you try to pin Knowledge down, the more it slips away
Looser is probably better
There is no one solution
Knowledge doesn’t grow forever
No one is in charge
You can’t impose rules and systems
There is no silver bullet
How you define knowledge determines how you manage it
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Knowledge Management
Challenges to Knowledge Management
It is almost impossible to directly tie results, sales,
income … to Knowledge Management
As such, the task of judging success or failure is not
cut and dry. While the importance of Knowledge
Management may be agreed upon, the
disconnect between KM and results may pose
justification challenges. This reinforces the need
for strong support from the top down.
64
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Knowledge Management
Take Away Points
We have discussed how knowledge is in the minds
of the employees. The extraction of this knowledge is
a critical portion of knowledge management. This
extraction presents a significant challenge both in
process and cooperation. In many cases an
employees value may be tied closely to their
knowledge, convincing them to share this knowledge
and possibly lessen their value is a tough task.
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© Subbarao, Sullivan, Tobin 2001
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Knowledge Management
Take Away Points

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Mastering Knowledge is a decisive factor for
success. Optimizing knowledge acquisition
and knowledge transfer results in competitive
advantage.
Ref. 7
© Subbarao, Sullivan, Tobin 2001
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Knowledge Management
Take Away Points

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Sharing Knowledge means “ the wheel does
not have to be reinvented by everyone”.
© Subbarao, Sullivan, Tobin 2001
11/8/2001
Knowledge Management
Summary
“Everyday that a better idea goes unused
is a lost opportunity. We have to share
more, and we have to share faster. I tell
employees that sharing and using best
practices is the single most important
thing they can do.”
Ken Derr, CEO of Chevron
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Ref. 31
© Subbarao, Sullivan, Tobin 2001
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Knowledge Management
References Page 1 of 5
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2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
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Defining knowledge management; Barry Sterndale-Bennett; The
British Journal of Administrative Management, Orpington; Jul/Aug
2001, Iss. 26; pg. 26, 2 pgs
Map you knowledge strategy; Xenia Stanford; Information Outlook,
Washington; Jun 2001; Vol. 5, Iss. 6; pg. 18, 7 pgs
The information audit as a first step towards effective knowledge
management; Susan Henczel; Information Outlook, Washington; Jun
2001; Vol. 5, Iss. 6; pg. 48, 10 pgs
Knowledge Management Research Report 2000, KPMG Consulting
Jack Welch: General Electric’s Revolutionary, Harvard Business
School, 9-394-065, Rev. April 12, 1994
Customer Knowledge Management, The GE Answer Center, 800626-2000.
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Knowledge Management
References Page 2 of 5
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
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Knowledge Management, New ways to improve the Bottom Line;
Films for the Humanities & Sciences; Video; 2000.
Jack Welch: General Electric’s Revolutionary; Harvard Business
School; 9-394-065; Rev. April 12, 1994.
Many rivers to cross: from ICT to knowledge management systems;
Paul H. J. Hendricks; Journal of Information Technology; June 2001,
Vol. 16, No. 2; pg. 57, 15 pgs.
Sharing knowledge across boundaries; Claudio Ciborra and Rafeal
Andreu; Journal of Information Technology; June 2001, Vol. 16, No.
2; pg. 73, 19 pgs.
Innovation through knowledge codification; Carsten Sorensen and
Ulrika Lundh-Snis; Journal of Information Technology; June 2001,
Vol. 16, No. 2; pg. 83, 16 pgs.
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Knowledge Management
References Page 3 of 5
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13.
14.
15.
16.
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The knowledge management tussle – speech communities and
rhetorical strategies in the development of knowledge management;
Steffen Raub and Charles-Clemens Ruling; Journal of Information
Technology; June 2001, Vol. 16, No. 2; pg. 113, 13 pgs.
Practicing peer review in organizations: a qualifier for knowledge
dissemination and legimization; Magnus Bergquist, Jan Ljungberg and
Ulrika Lundh-Snis; Journal of Information Technology; June 2001, Vol.
16, No. 2; pg. 99, 13 pgs.
Managing Engineering Knowledge, MOKA: Methodology for
knowledge based engineering applications; Melody Stokes; MOKA
Consortium, 2001
http://academic.emporia.edu/smithwil/00spmg456/groups/genelectric.
html
http://www.mountainplains.org/articles/csr.html
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References Page 4 of 5
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GE Web Site - http://www.ge.com
http://www.zdnet.com/products/stories/reviews/0,4161,2763630,00.ht
ml
http://www.knowledgebusiness.com/resource/news_read.asp?id=62
3
http://www.kmmag.co.uk/CURRENTFEB/TOOLSfeb.HTM
http://www.knowledgebusiness.com/resource/news_read.asp?id=32
5
http://www.ktic.com/topics6/13_lead.htm
http://www.uts.edu.au/fac/hss/Department/DIS/km/knowman.htm
http://www.emgltd.com/events/kmnews31.htm
CIO Magazine, "Destructive Behavior" article, July15,2000
PC Magazine, "Q&A: Gary Reiner CIO and Executive VicePresident, General Electric Company" article, May 31,2001
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Knowledge Management
References Page 5 of 5
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29.
30.
31.
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Building the Knowledge Enterprise, Department of the Navy, USA,
Feb 2001
Mastering Information Management, Complete MBA companion in
Information Management; Donald Marchand, Thomas Davenport
and Tim Dickson; 2000.
CIO Magazine, "Capital Gains" article, August 1997.
A guide to planning a knowledge management system by: Floyd W.
Carlson (1999) University of Maryland Bowie State University.
O'Dell, C. & Grayson, C.J. "If only we knew what we know: the
transfer of internal knowledge and best practice. New York: Simon &
Schuster, 1998.
© Subbarao, Sullivan, Tobin 2001
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