Nationalism
Prior to 1800, Europe was organized around many different kingdoms and city – states, which are an independent
country whose territory consists of a city. However, around 1800 the people of Europe, with similar ethnic and
economic backgrounds, were inspired to band together and seek nationalism which is a strong society and the state.
Reasons for the rise of Nationalism
1. Economic Growth. As people begin to deal with one another economically, they develop a commonality that
leads to the desire to unify.
2. The success of the American Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. The success of the American Revolution
inspires the people of Europe to overthrow foreign leadership and to gain liberty for themselves. In addition,
the Napoleonic Wars, creates a need to defend themselves against expansive empires and foreign territories.
3. The desire for independence.
Nationalism – Unification of Italy
Italian Unification
The name for the movement for Italian unity was
Risorgimento or resurgence or revival. Its most vocal leader
was Giuseppe Mazzini, who was the founder of a group called
“Young Italy”. Their objective was to make Italy an
independent sovereign nation, or a nation-state consisting of
one nationality rather than a number of different political,
social and economic regions that were governed by separate
governments.
Beginning in January of 1848, Sicily began a
republican revolution. Several weeks later, the mood of
revolution took over the peninsula. In Lombardy and Venetia,
the King of Sardinia, Charles Albert, joined the war against the
Austrians to expel them from Italy. This was not a successful
war because just before an Italian victory, Pope Pius IX
withdrew his troops, causing the troops of Naples to withdraw
and allowing the Austrians to regain control of Lombardy and
Venetia. This loss cost Giuseppe Mazzini’s popularity to wane,
creating a conservative backlash and bring Charles Albert to
return to power.
Sardinia
The Kingdom of Sardinia is going to lead the way to Italian independence. The
following year in 1849, King Charles Albert dies and his son, Victor Emmanuel II,
takes the throne. Victor Emmanuel II attempts to keep the unity movement
alive. Assisting him in this effort is his advisor, Count Camillo di Cavour. Cavour’s
objectives are to promote rapid industrial growth, reduce the influence of the
Catholic Church and advance the role of Sardinia. One his first moves is to
support France in the Crimean War in 1848. When France wins the war, the
French promise to assist Sardinia in gaining their independence against the
Austrians. France sent 120,000 soldiers as promised. By 1860, these kingdoms
had defeated the Austrians and asked to become part of Sardinia.
Giuseppe Garibaldi was the Italian
responsible for uniting Southern Italy. At
the time, the area was known as the
Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Garibaldi used
guerilla warfare, hit and run tactics, with his
army the Red Shirts. By 1860, all of the
Italian Peninsula was under the control of
Italian nationalists. Garibaldi, surrender his
conquests to Victor Emmanuel II. Italian
people supported the union with Sardinia.
Eventually, the Italians gained control of
Venice and Rome making Rome their capital
Nationalism – Unification of Germany
In 1815 there were 39 independent German states. By 1871,
these German states, except Austria and Switzerland had
united into a single nation. The Congress of Vienna created
the German Confederation as a way of dealing with French
aggression. The Diet, or German Confederation Assembly,
was a non-democratic legislature that made key decisions for
the region. Prussia arises as the strongest nation within this
confederation. Prussia was led by a group of wealthy
landowners called Junkers. Prussia works toward Zollverein,
which called for German economic union. Soon a new king
by the name of William I comes to power in Prussia and sees
the best chance of Prussian expansion through the military.
William I turns to Otto von Bismarck, a new Prime Minister,
to accomplish this goal. Bismarck advocates for realpolitik,
which is the right of any nation – state to pursue its own
advantage by any means, including war and repudiation of
treaties.
Bismarck’s belief in
realpolitik was motivated
by the Renaissance author
and philosopher
Machiavelli who in his
book The Prince wrote
that “the ends justify the
means.” Can you think of
realpolitik in world events
today?
Bismarck wants to expand the size
of the military. When the Prussian
assembly refused to appropriate
the money, Bismarck simply
collected the money without the
authorization of the assembly.
In 1862, Bismarck is
quoted as saying that
great issues of the times
will not be decided by
“speeches and majority
decisions … but by blood
and iron.”
Bismarck’s 3 Goals for the 3 Wars
1. Raise money for army expansion.
2. To limit the control of Austria
3. To bring all German states under Prussian control.
Bismarck’s 3 Wars
Danish War
When the Danes gained the territories of Schleswig and Holstein, the Germans who lived there were unhappy about it and appealed to the German
confederation. Eager to gain land and power, the German’s quickly declared war on Denmark and won. The Austrians would govern Holstein while
Prussia would control Schleswig. This did not last long as Prussia wanted both. Because of this Prussia declares war on Austria.
7 Weeks War
Bismarck is looking for a fight with Austria over Holstein. Prussia plans carefully to assure that Austria does not have any allies. Russia is promised
help with her control of Polish rebels. France is promised “compensations” for remaining neutral. Italy is promised the Italian province of Venetia in
the case of a Prussian win. War begins on June 15 th, 1866 when Prussia declares war on Austria for invading Holstein. The Seven Week war ends with
the surrender of the Austrians and the formation of a new organization called the North German Confederation that allowed the German countries
north of the Main River to govern themselves internally but put foreign policy in the hands of Prussia.
Franco-Prussian War
The countries south of the Main River were mostly Catholic and not interested in being controlled by the Protestant Prussians. Bismarck commented
"I knew that a Franco-Prussian War must take place before a united Germany was formed." France was unhappy with the new situation having not
received their land that was promised by Bismarck in the Seven Weeks War. Bismarck played up the Ems Dispatch concerning the Spanish throne in
order to infuriate the French. On July 19, 1870, France declared war on Prussia. The Catholic South aligned itself with the fellow Germans in Prussia
and defeated the French in the year long conflict.
Nationalism – Unification of Germany
Germany achieved unification on January 1871 at the Versailles Palace in France.
There were 25 German states, each of which had their own domestic policies and
leaders. Princes of the German states gathered there to proclaim Wilhelm of
Prussia as Emperor Wilhelm of the German Empire after the French lost the
Franco Prussian War. Bismarck is named 1st Chancellor of the German Empire in
1871. His nickname becomes the Iron Chancellor.
The German Catholics in the South became a political faction to contest Bismarck’s policies.
Bismarck sees the Catholic Church as an obstacle to his nationalistic dreams. Bismarck was
even more disturbed by Rome declaring papal infallibility which was the doctrine that the
Pope, when speaking on matters of faith and morals, was infallible or free from error. In
1872, Bismarck eventually expels all the Jesuits. Later, the German legislature passes the
May Laws to weaken Catholic political power. This period was known as the Kulturkampf or
cultural struggle. Why would a nationalist leader, mistrust the Catholic Church?
Bismarck’s relies on Germany’s abundance of natural resources and Germany’s earlier
economic unification called Zollverein to fully industrialize. Under his leadership,
Germany quickly becomes a leader in world steal production. Other European countries
pour in money to invest in German companies, making Germany an economic
powerhouse. At his resignation in 1890, Germany had become a military and economic
empire.
Bismarck had developed an uncompromising hatred for socialists and anarchists. His
attacks on them were egregious. At one point he wrote, "They are this country's rats and
should be exterminated." Another time he called them "a host of enemies bent on pillage
and murder." Although only two socialists sat in the Reichstag (legislature) in 1871, their
number and support grew with each election, until they had 35 seats in 1890. As early as
1876 Bismarck had sought legislation to outlaw the party but failed to get a majority.
After two assassination attempts against William I he prorogued Parliament and ran a
campaign in which the socialists (quite unjustly) were blamed for the failed efforts to kill
the emperor. The conservative parties triumphed and the Social Democratic Party was
banned in 1878. The ban was renewed until 1890. Source - Kenneth Barkin
Why would
Bismarck have
such a mistrust
of Socialist and
Anarchists?
William I became Kaiser or Emperor of Germany in 1871 at the
end of the Franco-Prussian war. When William I died, his son
Frederick takes over but dies after only 100 days. His son Kaiser
William II, he rules Germany from 1888 to 1918. He sees
Bismarck as vicious manipulator and William II begins to side
with the liberals eventually forcing Bismarck out of power in 1890.
Below are direct quotes from Otto Von Bismarck. How do his words reflect his beliefs in realpolitik?
“All treaties between great states cease to be binding when they come in
conflict with the struggle for existence.”
“Laws are like sausages, it is better not to see them being made”.
“People never lie so much as after a hunt, during a war or before an election.”
“When a man says he approves of something in principle, it means he hasn't
the slightest intention of carrying it out in practice.”
“When you want to fool the world, tell the truth.”
Russia – Empire of the Czar
In the early 1800’s, Russia stretched from Europe to Pacific. The country had 60 Nationalities and 100 languages.
Russia had a 2/3rd Slavs (Russians) population but also Middle Easterners and Asians. Russia was the last
remaining European countries to have serfdom. The government was an Autocratic, which means one person
ruler with complete power. Russia was controlled by a Czar or King. Russia was considered backwards politically
and socially compared to the more progressive nations of Europe during the 19th Century. Enlightenment ideas
did not take hold in Russia like they did the rest of Europe.
Looking at the map of Russia above, how might Russia’s geographic location lead to its backwardness?
Alexander I, ruled from 1801 – 1825, originally started to move
Russia towards a Constitution and more liberalized government.
However, after his success against Napoleon’s Invasion in 1812,
Alexander I gave up on social and political reforms and focused on
nation building thinking his popularity would overcome the need
for improvement. The military, sensing the Russian people’s
discontent, secretly plotted against the Czar Alexander I.
Military officers lead the Decembrist Revolt in 1825 when Alexander I died
and there was confusion on who would take over. The revolt was ultimately
unsuccessful. Nicholas I (1826 – 1855) took over the throne and was
determined to maintain autocratic rule. He organized a secret police to put
down dissent. Czar Nicholas I also denied basic civil liberties or personal
freedoms like habeas corpus and free speech. During Nicholas I rule, Russia
also suffered a humiliating defeat in the Crimean War in 1856 against the
Britain and France over territory once controlled by the Ottoman Empire.
Russia
Upon Czar Nicholas I death, his son Alexander II took over. Czar Alexander II
realized that Russia was lagging behind other European powers and this was
magnified with the loss in the Crimean War. Czar Alexander II wanted to
industrialize. However, cheap labor needed for the factories was tied up in
the outdated and inhumane practice of serfdom. Alexander II on March 3,
1861 emancipated all of the serfs which made it possible for them to leave
the land on which they were born. However, these serfs were very poor
and had no land for themselves or any financial savings. Many left to the
cities to find work. Another reform Czar Alexander II undertook was the
system called zemstvos, which allowed elected assembly men to control
schools and healthcare in provinces.
Czar Alexander II became known as Czar
Liberator.
1. Abolished serfdom
2. Expanded education
3. Expanded free press
4. Did away with the secret police
5. Reorganized the military
Alexander II, however, could not keep anyone happy. The wealthy landowners
were angry because he abolished sefdom and the poor were mad because they no
money or influence. Michael Bakunin advocated anarchy or the elimination of all
institutions; including state, family, property, and law. Nihilists believed that Russia
should start from the beginning again. By the 1870’s, the Populist Movement (a
movement of people versus the elites) had gathered power. This group believed
that the Peasants would lead a revolt and overthrow the Czar. The students and
intellectuals who led this movement traveled from village to village to gather
power but were unsuccessful and eventually turned to violent tactics. Because of
this pressure Czar Alexander II drafted a plan to establish a national assembly or
Duma but before he could put his plan into effect he was killed by a bombing 1881.
Czar Alexander III (1881 – 1894), angered by his father’s assignation, turned back on reform. He refused
to establish the Duma. He once again outlawed free press. He limited the power of the zemstoves.
Instead, Czar Alexander III attempted to unify the Russian people through the process of Russification or
a resurgence of Russian pride or nationalism. However, all this lead to was intolerance and persecution
of anyone who was not of the Russian orthodox faith or Slavic ethnicity. The Jews were especially
persecuted. They were forced to live in certain sectors of Russian cities called ghettos. Alexander’s
government also encouraged pograms or organized massacres of a minority group.
Why did Czar Alexander III turn away from the reforms of his father?
When Alexander III died in 1894, his son Nicholas II continued his strict policies.
Unfortunately for Nicholas I, a revolutionary mood swept Russia. Followers of Karl Marx
believed that the working class would rise up in the Revolution not the peasants. The
Mensheviks believed that the time was not right for a revolution (not enough workers yet)
but the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov- known as Lenin thought that the
workers could be led by a small group of professional revolutionaries. As the antigovernment feelings grew worse as the time went on. On January 22, 1905, 200,000
workers marched in St. Petersburg and the palace guards opened fire. This became known
as Bloody Sunday and sparked many political protests. Organizations drew up programs
for political reform. In 1905 the first Soviet or workers council was formed to voice
worker’s grievances. A representative government with universal suffrage was what the
workers wanted. In October 1905, workers seized control of the major cities and
demanded change. In response, Nicholas II announced a law providing for the election of a
Duma or legislature that would serve as an advisory body. The lack of power afforded the
Duma only made people angrier. As a result, Nicholas issued the October Manifesto that
granted civil rights to the citizens and power to the Duma. But before the Duma could act,
Nicholas dissolved it. By the beginning of W.W.I, the problems of Russia had not only been
unsolved but also intensified.
Austria – Hungary Empire
Prince Klemens von Metternich, is the Minister of Foreign
Affairs of Austria from 1809-1848. He believed that
democracy and nationalism would weaken the peace of
Europe, the Concert of Europe, and the Metternich System.
In 1848 Nationalist groups began to form and demanded:
Freedom of Speech
Freedom of Press
Peasant relief of Feudal Dues
Representation in the government of Austria
Infighting among the protest groups kept the groups from challenging the
established government. In October of 1848 Emperor Francis Ferdinand resigned
the throne and his nephew, Francis Joseph became emperor at the age of 18. He
attempted to hold together a diverse empire that slowly slips from his grasp. In
1859 he loses Lombardy to the Italians, in 1866 there is a loss of influence over the
German States and a loss of Venetia to the Italians in the Austrian/Prussian war.
The Magyars of Hungary challenged Francis Joseph. In 1848, Hungarian
Nationalists declared their independence. With the help of Russia, Francis
Joseph put down the revolt. By 1866, Joseph realizes that he will need
Hungary and works with the Hungarian leader, Francis Deak to compromise.
In 1867, a compromise is reached, an AUSGLEICH (compromise) that is the
Dual Monarchy. Emperor Francis Joseph is the Emperor of Austria and the
King of Hungary. The two countries shared a Ministry of Foreign Affairs, War
and Finance. The two countries depended upon each other with Austria
providing the industrial base and Hungary providing the Agricultural one.
Conflict arises over the groups of people in the combined monarchy. Bohemia
and Moravia become industrialized and urban faster than the rest of the
country. Austrian Germans and Hungarian Magyars are happy but 3/5ths of
the population is unrepresented in the government. The Slavs, Poles, Czechs,
Slovaks, Serbs and Bosnians have no say in the government and hold the
common goal of wanting to break away and form a Slav kingdom. Austria
Hungarian Empire continues to weaken through the second half of the 19th
Century. Reforms were not enough and conservative measures failed to
repress the liberals wish for democracy.
WWI
Reasons for WWI
1. RIVALRIES: Economic Competition / Imperialism
Western Nation’s industrialization and competition between them increased.
Great Britain wanted to keep the seas open.
France wanted Morocco for raw materials
Germany wanted to gain economic control over the Ottoman Empire.
Austria-Hungary wanted to gain access thru the Balkans to the Aegean Sea.
Russia wanted to control the Dardanelles.
2. NATIONALISM: Aggressive patriotism.
It caused people to fight with unclear objectives and caused internal
divisions and was a destabilizing force.
Germany has a new sense of national pride.
The France was angered by the loss of Alsace-Lorraine in 1870 in the Franco-Prussian War.
Austria-Hungary is made up of many ethnicities who want their independence.
The Pan-Slavism is a movement to unite the Slavic nations, especially Yugoslavia (Southern Slavic). In 1908, AustriaHungary annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina for security reasons and the Slavs called on the Russians for support. This in turn
results in two Balkan Wars:
Balkan Wars:
1912-Serbia wanted Albania for water access but doesn’t get it
1913-Albania becomes independent, Serbs get nothing and Russia is again unresponsive to the Serbs’ concerns.
3. MILITARISM:
Glorification of war and of the military. Germany’s military emergence, especially their Navy,
upsets the balance of power in Europe.
4. ENTANGLING ALLIANCES: Defensive agreements between nations.
1873: Led by Otto Von Bismarck, Germany, Austria-Hungary and Russia sign the Emperors League.
1879: Dual Alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary that became the Triple Alliance including Italy in 1882.
1894: Russia and France sign a mutual aid pact.
1904: France and Britain signed an entente (friendly agreement) Cordiale.
1907: Britain and Russia signed an entente also and along with France this became known as the Triple Entente (Allies).
WWI
Slavs living under Austrian – Hungarian rule (Czechs, Slovaks, Serbs,
Croats, Poles and Ukrainians) resented the lack of independence
and lack of basic rights. A new movement of Slavic Nationalism
began to grow. Serbians, in particular, were angered by Austrian
interference in the Balkan Peninsula. When Austrian royalty, ArchDuke Ferdinand and his wife went to visit the Sarajevo, Bosnia, a
group of Serbian Separatists called the Black Hand plotted their
assignation June 28, 1914.
“At 10.10, when the six car possession passed the central police
station, Nedjelko Cabrinovic hurled a hand grenade station at the
archduke's car. The driver accelerated when he saw the object flying
towards him and the grenade exploded under the wheel of the next
car. Two of the occupants, Eric von Merizzi and Count Boos-Waldeck
were seriously wounded. About a dozen spectators were also hit by
bomb splinters. Franz Ferdinand's driver, Franz Urban, drove on
extremely fast and other members of the Black Hand group on the
route, Cvijetko Popovic, Gavrilo Princip, Danilo Ilic and Trifko
Grabez, were unable to fire their guns or hurl their bombs at the
Archduke's car. After attending the official reception at the City
Hall, Franz Ferdinand asked about the members of his party that
had been wounded by the bomb. When the archduke was told they
were badly injured in hospital, he insisted on being taken to see
them. A member of the archduke's staff, Baron Morsey, suggested
this might be dangerous, but Oskar Potiorek, who was responsible
for the safety of the royal party, replied, "Do you think Sarajevo is
full of assassins?" However, Potiorek did accept it would be better if
Duchess Sophie remained behind in the City Hall. When Baron
Morsey told Sophie about the revised plans, she refused to stay
arguing: "As long as the Archduke shows himself in public today I
will not leave him." In order to avoid the city centre, General Oskar
Potiorek decided that the royal car should travel straight along the
Appel Quay to the Sarajevo Hospital. However, Potiorek forgot to
tell the driver, Franz Urban, about this decision. On the way to the
hospital, Urban took a right turn into Franz Joseph Street. One of
the conspirators, Gavrilo Princip, was standing on the corner at the
time. Oskar Potiorek immediately realized the driver had taken the
wrong route and shouted "What is this? This is the wrong way!
We're supposed to take the Appel Quay!"
Source Spartacus Educational
Borijove Jevtic, one of the conspirators. Source: Eyewitness History
“Seven conspirators joined the crowd lining the Archduke's route to City Hall. Each took a different position, ready to attack the royal car if the opportunity
presented itself. The six-car procession approached one conspirator, Gabrinovic (or Cabrinovic), who threw his bomb only to see it bounce off the Archduke's car
and explode near the following car. Unhurt, the Archduke and his wife sped to the reception at City Hall. The ceremonies finished, the Royal procession amazingly
retraced its steps bringing the Archduke into the range of the leader of the conspiracy, Gavrilo Princip. More amazingly, the royal car stopped right in front of
Princip providing him the opportunity to fire two shots. Both bullets hit home.”
Count Franz von Harrach rode on the running board of the royal car serving as a bodyguard for the Archduke. His account begins
immediately after Princip fires his two shots. Source: Eyewitness History
"As the car quickly reversed, a thin stream of blood spurted from His Highness's mouth onto my right check. As I was pulling out my handkerchief to wipe the blood
away from his mouth, the Duchess cried out to him, 'In Heaven's name, what has happened to you?' At that she slid off the seat and lay on the floor of the car, with
her face between his knees. I had no idea that she too was hit and thought she had simply fainted with fright. Then I heard His Imperial Highness say, 'Sopherl,
riding
the motorcade
through
theforward
streetsand
ofasked
Sarajevo
onwas
28
Sopherl, don't die. Stay alive for the children!' At that, I seized the Archduke byWhile
the collar
of hisin
uniform,
to stop his head
dropping
him if he
in great pain. He answered me quite distinctly, 'It's nothing!' His face began to June,
twist somewhat
but he went on
repeating,
six Sophie
or seven were
times, ever
he
Franz Ferdinand
and
his wife
shotmore
andfaintly
killedasby
gradually lost consciousness, 'It's nothing!' Then, after a short pause, there was
a violentPrincip,
choking sound
causedmember
by the bleeding.
was stopped
as earlier
we reached
the
Gavrilo
a Bosnian
of theItBlack
Hand;
in the
Konak."
day Ferdinand's car had also been fired at by a hand grenade,
himSerbia
to complain
angrily
upon his arrivalofficial
at the city
hall. and
July 23rd Austria-Hungry gives Serbia a 48-hour ultimatum thatcausing
states that
will allow
Austria-Hungarian
to enter
conduct an investigation or Austria-Hungry would declare war.
THE MATCH IS LIT……….
WWI
Events leading up to WWI
July 28th
July 30th
July 31st
August 1st
August 3rd
August 4th
Austria Hungry declares war on Serbia and mobilizes
her troops.
Russia begins to mobilize her troops assured that
France would support her. As do France and Britain
as members of the Triple Entente.
Germany tells Russia to stop mobilizing or face war
and tells France to do the same.
Germany declares war on Russia.
Germany marches into Luxembourg and asked for
permission to cross Belgium that was neutral.
Belgium appeals to Great Britain citing the Treaty of
1839 guaranteeing Belgium’s neutrality.
Germany declares war on France and invades
Belgium.
Britain declares war on Germany for invading
Belgium.
Central Powers: (Previously the Triple Alliance)
- Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire,
Bulgaria
Allied Powers: (Previously the Triple Entente)
- Great Britain, France, Russia, Belgium, Serbia,
Montenegro and Japan
The Schlieffen Plan was named for German General Alfred von Schlieffen
and designed in 1905.
This was implemented at the outbreak of the war in early August in 1914.
To be effective this plan needed two things:
1. The Russians to mobilize slowly
2. The battles on the western front to go quickly.
Germany would need to reach Paris in 6 weeks.
Neither happened and the plan was abandoned by
September 1914.
Deadlock on the Western Front
The Western Front includes fighting in the countries of Belgium
and France. Evenly matched, Germany and France engage in a
Race to the Sea attempting to outflank each other. By
November 1914, the combatants are at a stalemate. At which
point it become a battle of armies in trenches, 475 miles long
and sometimes only several hundred yards apart.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Trench Warfare
Rat, Lice, and Disease
Trench Cycle
Wet, filthy conditions
Death was everywhere. This war will claim
16 million dead and 21 million wounded.
WWI Poetry
Technology surpassed strategy!
WWI Poetry
Wilfred Owen (1893-1918) -"Dulce et Decorum Est "
Bent double, like old beggars under sacks,
Knock-kneed, coughing like hags, we cursed through sludge,
Till on the haunting flares we turned our backs
And towards our distant rest began to trudge.
Men marched asleep. Many had lost their boots
But limped on, blood-shod. All went lame; all blind;
Drunk with fatigue; deaf even to the hoots
Of tired, outstripped Five-Nines that dropped behind.
Gas! GAS! Quick, boys! -- An ecstasy of fumbling,
Fitting the clumsy helmets just in time;
But someone still was yelling out and stumbling
And flound'ring like a man in fire or lime . . .
Dim, through the misty panes and thick green light,
As under I green sea, I saw him drowning.
Wilfred Owen (1893-1918)
Wilfred Edward Salter Owen was born on March 18, 1893. He was on
the Continent teaching until he visited a hospital for the wounded and
then decided, in September, 1915, to return to England and enlist. "I
came out in order to help these boys-- directly by leading them as well
as an officer can; indirectly, by watching their sufferings that I may
speak of them as well as a pleader can. I have done the first" (October,
1918).
In all my dreams, before my helpless sight,
He plunges at me, guttering, choking, drowning.
If in some smothering dreams you too could pace
Behind the wagon that we flung him in,
And watch the white eyes writhing in his face,
His hanging face, like a devil's sick of sin;
If you could hear, at every jolt, the blood
Come gargling from the froth-corrupted lungs,
Obscene as cancer, bitter as the cud
Of vile, incurable sores on innocent tongues, -My friend, you would not tell with such high zest
To children ardent for some desperate glory,
The old lie: Dulce et decorum est
Pro patria mori.
Siegfried Sassoon (1886-1967)
How to Die
Dark clouds are smouldering into red
While down the craters morning burns.
The dying soldier shifts his head
To watch the glory that returns;
He lifts his fingers toward the skies
Where holy brightness breaks in flame;
Radiance reflected in his eyes,
And on his lips a whispered name.
You'd think, to hear some people talk,
That lads go West with sobs and curses,
And sullen faces white as chalk,
Hankering for wreaths and tombs and hearses.
But they've been taught the way to do it
Like Christian soldiers; not with haste
And shuddering groans; but passing through it
With due regard for decent taste
Source: Fordham
Owen was injured in March 1917 and sent home; he was fit for duty in
August, 1918, and returned to the front. November 4, just seven days
before the Armistice, he was caught in a German machine gun attack
and killed. He was twenty-five when he died.
The bells were ringing on November 11, 1918, in Shrewsbury to
celebrate the Armistice when the doorbell rang at his parent's home,
bringing them the telegram telling them their son was dead.
Source: Emery College
Wilfred Gibson (1878 - 1962)
Back
They ask me where I've been,
And what I've done and seen.
But what can I reply
Who know it wasn't I,
But someone just like me,
Who went across the sea
And with my head and hands
Killed men in foreign lands...
Though I must bear the blame,
Because he bore my name.
Source: Fordham
Herbert Read (1893 – 1968)
The Happy Warrior
His wild heart beats with painful sobs,
His strin'd hands clench an ice-cold rifle,
His aching jaws grip a hot parch'd
tongue,
His wide eyes search unconsciously.
He cannot shriek.
Bloody saliva
Dribbles down his shapeless jacket.
I saw him stab
And stab again
A well-killed Boche.
This is the happy warrior,
This is he...
Source: Fordham
Wilfred Owen (1872 – 1918)
In Flanders Field
In Flanders fields the poppies blow
Between the crosses, row on row
That mark our place; and in the sky.
The larks, still bravely singing, fly
Scarce heard amid the guns below.
We are the Dead. Short days ago We
lived, felt dawn, saw sunset glow,
Loved and were loved, and now we
lie. In Flanders fields.
Take up our quarrel with the foe: To
you from failing hands we throw.
The torch; be yours to hold it high. If
ye break faith with us who die We
shall not sleep, though poppies
grow In Flanders fields.
Source: Fordham
WWI
Eastern Front
The line of fighting on the Eastern side of
Europe between Russia and Germany and
Austria-Hungary is known as the Eastern
Front. Fighting began on the Eastern
front when Russia invaded East Prussia
on 17th August 1914. Germany
immediately launched a counter-offensive
and pushed Russia back. This pattern of
attack and counter-attack continued for
the first two years of the war and meant
that the Eastern Front changed position
as land was captured and lost by both
sides. By 1917, the Russian people were
fed up and demoralized by the huge
number of Russian losses. The
government and monarchy were
overthrown and the new Bolshevik
government signed the Treaty of Brest
Litovsk which took the Russians out of
the war. Source: historyonthenet.com
War at Sea
The period of nationalism spurred on a naval arms race prior
to 1914. The result was that Britain, an unrivaled naval superpower, had competition from Germany, Russia, and Japan.
This arms race is a great example of militarism. By the
beginning of WWI; Britain, France, Germany, Russia, Italy,
Austria-Hungry, Japan, and the United States all had modern
navies with submarines and iron sided dreadnought warships
The British Navy used their warships to blockade German
Ports. This created wide spread hunger throughout Germany
and Austria-Hungry. The German response was
indiscriminate submarine warfare against Allied commerce
both military and civilian.
In May of 1915, the Lusitania is torpedoed with 1200 dead and 123
Americans among the dead. By March 1916: Wilson calls for an end of
unrestricted U-Boat warfare. Some American’s do not like the Allies.
Irish are anti-British; German Americans support the Central Powers,
while still others are pro-Allies. On February 1st, 1917, the Germans
announce a return to unrestricted U-Boat warfare on ships heading
toward Britain. Wilson breaks off diplomatic relations. The Zimmerman
note was the second reason for the United States joining the war. On
March 1st, American newspapers print a copy of the Zimmerman note.
He was the German Foreign Minister and was cabling the Ambassador
to Mexico to promising him Texas, New Mexico and others in exchange
for Mexican support. The United States newspaper reporter publishes
the correspondence and the American public became enraged. In April
1917, US President, Woodrow Wilson, asks Congress for a formal
declaration of war. Although originally the US was terribly unprepared
for war (their standing army only numbered 300,000) the American
Armies would soon make a huge contribution on the Western Front for
the Allies.
The British Admiralty had secretly subsidized her
construction and she was built to Admiralty
specifications with the understanding that at the
outbreak of war the ship would be consigned to
government service. As war clouds gathered in
1913, the Lusitania quietly entered dry dock in
Liverpool and was fitted for war service. This
included the installation of ammunition
magazines and gun mounts on her decks. The
mounts, concealed under the teak deck, were
ready for the addition of the guns when needed.
"On the first of February we intend to begin submarine warfare
unrestricted. In spite of this, it is our intention to endeavor to keep
neutral the United States of America.
If this attempt is not successful, we propose an alliance on the
following basis with Mexico: That we shall make war together and
together make peace. We shall give general financial support, and it is
understood that Mexico is to reconquer the lost territory in New
Mexico, Texas, and Arizona. The details are left to you for settlement.
You are instructed to inform the President of Mexico of the above in
the greatest confidence as soon as it is certain that there will be an
outbreak of war with the United States and suggest that the President
of Mexico, on his own initiative, should communicate with Japan
suggesting adherence at once to this plan; at the same time, offer to
mediate between Germany and Japan.
Please call to the attention of the President of Mexico that the
employment of ruthless submarine warfare now promises to compel
England to make peace in a few months.”
Zimmerman (Sent January 19, 1917)
Russia - The Bolshevik Revolution
World War I for Russia went extremely bad on the Eastern
front. Despite a few early victories in Poland against the
German and Austrian armies, Russia suffered a series of
crippling defeats with enormous casualties. The
government struggled to properly supply the army in the
Eastern Front. Soon, the Russian people began to question
Tsar Nicholas leadership. When the war led to rationing
and food shortages at home, the radical Bolsheviks saw
their chance to overthrow the Tsar and take control of
Russia.
Tsar Nicholas II (1868 – 1918) was part of
the royal line known as Romanov’s. They
had an exurbanite amount of wealth at a
time when much of Russia was poor.
Adding to the unpopularity of the Czar
was the fact that his wife was German
nobility. In addition, the Romanov’s son
Alexei (1904 – 1918) suffered from
hemophilia. His mother will turn to a
monk from Siberia by the name of
Rasputin to “cure” the boy. Rasputin’s
behavior in Russia society will create
scandal and will lead people to question
the Tsar’s judgment.
Girgori Rasputin was born a peasant in
Siberia in 1869. He at the age of 18 he
becomes a monk and dedicates his life
to religion and claims that he had
mystic, healing powers. He arrives in St
Petersburg in 1903 and becomes
something of a religious celebrity
among the Russian nobles and elites.
He during this time leads a scandalous
life of drinking and womanizing.
Despite this, the Czarina Alexandra
befriends him and the monk begins to
“successfully” treat Alexei’s
hemophilia.
Embarrassed by the “Mad Monks” promiscuous actions, some of Nobles begin to plot against Rasputin. Below is a article from Time magazine based on the
murder, Prince Yussuppov’s own writings. In all its calculated horror Prince Felix Yussupov, cousin by marriage to Tsar Nicholas II, tells in a book Rasputin*
(ras-poo-teen), published in the U. S. last week, how the peasant monk wove a "tangle of dark intrigue, egotistical self-seeking, hysterical madness and vainglorious
pursuit of power, which wrapped the throne in an impenetrable web and isolated the monarch from his people"; how in greasy boots he walked over the imperial
parquets; how he gained almost complete mastery over the Tsar and Tsarina; how Prince Yussupov and the Grand Duke Dimitri, murdered him in an attempt to
deliver the royal couple from his clutches and threw his body into the Neva from a bridge in Petrograd. Most of this was known before (TIME, Dec. 6, 1926), but it
is the first time that Prince Yussupov has told it in his own words. Describing Rasputin, Prince Yussupov says: "He was of medium height, thickset, yet rather thin,
with long arms. His big head was covered with an untidy tangle of hair. Above his forehead there was a bald patch which, as I subsequently learned, came from a
blow administered to him for horse stealing. He seemed to be about 40 years old. He was wearing a long coat, wide trousers and long boots. . . . His whole bearing
attracted attention; he appeared unconstrained in his movements, and yet there seemed to be something dissembled about him—something suspicious, cowardly
and searching." Believing that to the influence of Rasputin all Russia's misfortunes in the early part of the War could be traced, the author-prince tells of the
formation of a conspiracy to kill the monk: "Our house on the Moika was chosen as the place where the project was to be carried out. A suite of rooms there was
being adapted for my own use and would serve our purpose better than anything else. My associations with Rasputin would afford me an opportunity of
persuading him to come and visit me. "This decision caused me much heart searching. The prospect of inviting a man to my house with the intention of killing him
horrified me. Whoever the man might be—even Rasputin, the incarnation of crime and vice—I could not contemplate without a shudder the part which I would be
called upon to play—that of a host encompassing the death of his guest." The following plan was agreed upon, according to the Prince: "On the day that Rasputin
should choose to come to me, I was to call for him toward midnight, and drive him to the Moika in an open car with Dr. Lazovert as chauffeur. While Rasputin was
drinking tea, I was to administer a solution of cyanide of potassium, which would cause his immediate death. His body was to be put into a sack, driven out of town
and thrown into the water." On the night of the murder a samovar of tea and a chocolate cake were placed on a small table. Dr. Lazovert, one of the conspirators,
took some crystals of cyanide of potassium out of his pocket, crushed them, removed layers of the cake, sprinkled the poison, replaced the layers. The scene was set.
Rasputin ate greedily of the cake but it did not seem to affect him. He drank poisoned wine, seemingly without effect. "Play something cheerful. I like to hear you
sing," said the monk to his worried host, Prince Yussupov. He sang. Impatient, the Prince, according to his version of the affair, got hold of a revolver: " 'Where
shall I shoot him,' I thought. 'Through the temple or through the heart.'" It was through the heart. But even then Rasputin did not die. Alarmed and amazed,
Prince Yussupov called in the other conspirators. Entering the room they saw the monk crawling across the floor "bellowing and snorting like a wounded animal."
Several more shots were fired and the body of the monk was tossed over the bridge, as planned. *RASPUTIN— Prince Felix Youssoupoff — Dial Preis, ($5).
Russia - The Bolshevik Revolution
Vladimir Ilyich Lenin (1870 – 1924) was a Russian radical who was inspired by the writing of Karl Marx. He
was eventually exiled in 1900 from Russia for revolutionary activities against the Czar. Lenin had a
brother killed for activities against the Romanovs. In 1917, with the help of the Germans, Lenin returns
to Russia and resumes his leadership of the Bolsheviks (majority Marxist party of Russia).
Kerensky was the
leader of the short
lived provisional
government that
was eventually
overthrown by
Lenin’s Communist
by a Coup.
Lenin’s promised
Peace, Land, and
Bread but had
difficulty delivering.
His revolution
demanded obedience
and he would kill
anyone who opposed
him.
Trotsky was the
leader of the Red
Army who used
propaganda and
terror to force the
Russia people to
obey.
With the war going badly, the Rasputin connection, and wide spread poverty
throughout Russia, the Russian people had enough and demanded change. On March
8, 1917 violent protest broke out in St. Petersburg. Czar Nicholas II responded by
sending troops to put the rebellion down, but rather than fighting the revolutionaries,
they join them. On March 15, Czar Nicholas II abdicated or gave up the throne ending
300 years of Romanov rule. A provisional, democratic government heading up by
Alexander Kerensky created a Duma or Russian Congress. Part of the Duma was
dominated by a group of Marxists called Soviets. Lenin, now back in Russia, will use
the chaos inside Russia and the Duma’s fixation on the war, as an opportunity to gain
power by overthrowing the provisional government and Kerensky Leadership. In
November 1917 the Bolsheviks stage a coup d’état or governmental overthrow of St.
Petersburg renaming the city Petrograd. The Bolsheviks began to call themselves
communists after Marx’s ideology. In March of 1918, Lenin ended Russia’s
involvement WWI by making peace with Germany. A Civil War ensued pitting the
Red’s (Communists) versus the Whites (royalists and moderate socialists) with Lenin’s
Communists successfully hanging on to power. They did so through violence and
intimidation. The Communists severely restricted the power of the Orthodox Church,
took over all industry from private owners, and eventually killed the Czar and his
entire family.
How was the Bolshevik Revolution and Lenin’s Leadership different from what Marx’s advocated for in his philosophy?
"In the evening of 16 July, between seven and eight p.m., when the time of my duty had just begun; Yurovsky, [the head of the execution squad] ordered me to take all the
Nagan revolvers from the guards and to bring them to him. I took twelve revolvers from the sentries as well as from some other of the guards and brought them to the
commandant's office. Yurovsky said to me, 'We must shoot them all tonight; so notify the guards not to be alarmed if they hear shots.' I understood, therefore, that Yurovsky
had it in his mind to shoot the whole of the Tsar's family, as well as the doctor and the servants who lived with them, but I did not ask him where or by whom the decision
had been made...At about ten o'clock in the evening in accordance with Yurovsky's order I informed the guards not to be alarmed if they should hear firing. About midnight
Yurovsky woke up the Tsar's family. I do not know if he told them the reason they had been awakened and where they were to be taken, but I positively affirm that it was
Yurovsky who entered the room occupied by the Tsar's family. In about an hour the whole of the family, the doctor, the maid and the waiters got up, washed and dressed
themselves. Just before Yurovsky went to awaken the family, two members of the Extraordinary Commission [of the Ekaterinburg Soviet] arrived at Ipatiev's house. Shortly
after one o'clock a.m., the Tsar, the Tsaritsa, their four daughters, the maid, the doctor, the cook and the waiters left their rooms. The Tsar carried the heir in his arms. The
Emperor and the heir were dressed in gimnasterkas [soldiers' shirts] and wore caps. The Empress, her daughters and the others followed him. Yurovsky, his assistant and the
two above-mentioned members of the Extraordinary Commission accompanied them. I was also present. During my presence none of the Tsar's family asked any questions.
They did not weep or cry. Having descended the stairs to the first floor, we went out into the court, and from there to the second door (counting from the gate) we entered the
ground floor of the house. When the room (which adjoins the store room with a sealed door) was reached, Yurovsky ordered chairs to be brought, and his assistant brought
three chairs. One chair was given to the Emperor, one to the Empress, and the third to the heir. The Empress sat by the wall by the window, near the black pillar of the arch.
Behind her stood three of her daughters (I knew their faces very well, because I had seen them every day when they walked in the garden, but I didn't know their names). The
heir and the Emperor sat side by side almost in the middle of the room. Doctor Botkin stood behind the heir. The maid, a very tall woman, stood at the left of the door leading
to the store room; by her side stood one of the Tsar's daughters (the fourth). Two servants stood against the wall on the left from the entrance of the room. The maid carried a
pillow. The Tsar's daughters also brought small pillows with them. One pillow was put on the Empress's chair; another on the heir's chair. It seemed as if all of them guessed
their fate, but not one of them uttered a single sound. At this moment eleven men entered the room: Yurovsky, his assistant, two members of the Extraordinary Commission,
and seven Letts [operatives of the infamous Cheka or Secret Police].. Yurovsky ordered me to leave, saying, 'Go on to the street, see if there is anybody there, and wait to see
whether the shots have been heard.' I went out to the court, which was enclosed by a fence, but before I got to the street I heard the firing. I returned to the house immediately
(only two or three minutes having elapsed) and upon entering the room where the execution had taken place, I saw that all the members of the Tsar's family were lying on the
floor with many wounds in their bodies. The blood was running in streams. The doctor, the maid and two waiters had also been shot. When I entered the heir was still alive
and moaned a little. Yurovsky went up and fired two or three more times at him. Then the heir was still." Source eyewitnesstohisotry.com Pavel Medvedev member of the
squad of soldiers guarding the royal family
End of the War
America enters the war in April 1917, and gives the allies a boost in men, morale, and supplies on the Western
Front. After a failed attack by the Central Powers and a successful counter attack by the allies in July of 1918 that
pushed German forces all the way back to their borders, the leading General told Kaiser William II that the war
was no longer winnable. Ottoman Empire surrenders October 30 th 1918. Austria Hungry follows soon after. On
November 9th 1918, the Kaiser abdicated and Germany singed an armistice on November 11 th. This date serves as
Veterans Day in the United States.
The Peace of Paris- The Big Four
US President Woodrow Wilson
France’s Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau
Britain Prime Minister David Lloyd George
Italian Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando.
Wilson will take a
leading role in the
Treaty of Versailles
issuing his 14
points for peace.
Russia was not invited to the conference.
Wilson’ 14 Points included…
1. “Open covenants of peace openly arrived at…” Wilson
seeks to end entangling alliances. This would lead to
the establishment of the League of Nations centered in
San Francisco which the US never belonged to because
it never received US Senate approval.
2. “Absolute freedom of Navigation.”
3. “The establishment of an equality of trade…among all
nations…” Wilson advocates for free trade which is an
issue still be argued today.
4. “Adequate guarantees given and taken that national
armaments will be reduced to the lowest point
consistent with domestic safety.” This would be largely
ignored Japan and then Germany under Hitler’s
leadership.
However, the other 3 of the Big 4 had very different ideas. They were
not thinking about peace but instead sought to punish the Central
Powers, specifically Germany, for the war.
1.
France and Britain seek first reparations, which are war
repayments for loss of life and property. This will lead the
new German Weimar Republic to print large sums of money
to repay their debt leading to large scale inflation and
economic turmoil in Germany which creates fertile soil for a
dictatorship.
Why would economic hardships enable dictators to take power?
2.
New countries were established out of the Treaty of Versailles. France
wanted these territories as cordon sanitaire or a quarantine line to
prevent future invasions. Also as part of their mandate they also
received the areas of Lorraine and Alasace from Germany as yet another
buffer.
Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia
Germany also was stripped of its overseas colonies as well.
Mandates were German parcels of land re-distributed
amongst the Allies. This along with reparations breeds
resentment and desperation within Germany.
How does the Treaty of Versailles lead to the WWII?