



All female mammals produce __________
Most mammals have ___________.
Milk
hair


The science of naming and classifying
organisms.
taxonomy



Linnean taxonomy classifies organisms based
on their ________ and _________ similarities.
physical
structural


A group of organisms in a classification system
is called a _________.
taxon


The basic taxon in the Linnean system is the
_________.
species


A system that gives each species a two part
scientific name using Latin words.
binomial nomenclature


The first part of the name of a species in
binomial nomenclature is called a _______.
genus


One or more physically similar species that are
thought to be closely related.
genus





Genus names are always _______ and in ______
or underlined. Species names are always
_______ and are also ______ or underlined.
capitalized
italics
lowercase
italics


The Linnean system of classification has seven
levels or _______.
taxa


What are the taxa for the Linnean Classification
system?
Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family,
Genus, Species


What is a limitation of the Linnean
classification system?
His system focused on physical similarities
alone. Comparing genetic traits is more
accurate.


The evolutionary history for a group of species
is called a _________.
phylogeny


The most common method used to make
evolutionary trees is called_________.
cladistics


Classification based on common ancestry.
cladistics


An evolutionary tree that proposes how species
may be related to each other through common
ancestry.
cladogram


A group of species that shares a common
ancestor.
clade


Traits that can be used to figure out
evolutionary relationships among a group of
species that are shared by some species but are
not present in others.
derived characters


Each place in a cladogram where a branch
splits.
node


What is the difference between a clade and a
taxon?
A taxon is a group of organisms classified
together in a system such as that of Linneaus. A
clade is any group of organisms that share a
common ancestor, so it can contain many taxa
of different levels.


Why does DNA often have the “last word”
when scientists are constructing evolutionary
relationships?
Shared or identical sequences of DNA is hard
proof of common ancestry, whereas shared
traits or similar characteristics can be the result
of convergent evolution.


What was the method, proposed by Linus
Pauling and Emile Zuckerkandl, of
evolutionary time? (early 1960’s)
They compared the amino acid sequences of
hemoglobin from a wide range of species. Their
findings show that the more distantly related
two species are, the more amino acid
differences there are in their hemoglobin.


Models that use mutation rates to measure
evolutionary time.
molecular clocks


Pauling and Zuckerkadl found that mutations
tend to add up at a _________ _____ for a
group of related species.
constant rate


How may a geologic event be related to a rate
of mutation?
Geologic events may be the cause to separate or
isolate a species. If the species is subjected to a
different environment, different mutations may
occur and the geologic event was the impetus
for genetic differentiation.


Pauling and Zuckerkandl confirmed that the
number of amino acid differences _________
with the evolutionary time between each group
of species.
increases


Why is the comparison between amino acids in
hemoglobin between species an important
discovery?
The amino acid differences are greater the
farther back one goes along the evolutionary
history(timeline). Humans have 16 differences
with mice, 18 with the horse, 35 with a bird,
and 79 with a shark.


DNA found only in mitochondria. (mt DNA)
Always inherited from the mother.
(nuclear DNA is a combination of DNA from
both parents)
mitochondrial DNA


A type of RNA useful for studying distantly
related species, such as species that are in
different kingdoms or phyla.
Ribosomal RNA rRNA


When studying the relationships among
species over longer time scales, it is best to use
a molecule that has a ___________ mutation
rate.
lower


Who first used rRNA to establish that archaea
diverged from the common ancestor they share
with bacteria almost 4 billion years ago?
Carl Woese


How are molecular clocks used to measure
evolutionary time?
The clocks presume that mutations occur at a
constant rate for any clade or group of related
taxa. Because these changes occur at a
relatively constant and predictable rate, the
changes can be used to measure how long ago
different lineages diverged.


What are the benefits of mitochondrial DNA
and ribosomal RNA as molecular clocks?
Mitochondrial DNA accumulates mutations
relatively quickly, so it is most useful for
analyzing relatedness within closely related
species or change within a species. Ribosomal
RNA has many conservative regions that
accumulate mutations relatively slowly, so it is
useful for studying taxa that are more distantly
related.


What molecular clock might be useful to
examine the evolutionary relationship between
several phyla in the kingdom Plantae?
rRNA, because it accumulates mutations
relatively slowly


Why did Woese propose classifying bacteria
and archaea into separate domains, rather than
just separate kingdoms?
The genetic difference between these groups of
prokaryotes is greater than the genetic
difference between the four eukaryotic
kingdoms.


What are the three domains in the tree of life?
Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya


Single celled prokaryotes. One of the largest
groups of organisms on Earth.
Bacteria


Single celled prokaryotes that have the ability
to live in extreme environments because of
their cell walls.
Archaea


A domain that contains all organisms made of
eukaryotic cells. They may be single celled,
colonial, or multicellular.
Eukarya


Why do some scientists believe that bacteria
and archaea have no true species?
Many of these organisms transfer genes among
themselves outside of typical reproduction.
They do not reproduce sexually. We define
species as the ability to produce offspring by
the combining of a male and female. If bacteria
reproduce by binary fission, they cannot by
definition be considered species.


Why are protists, plants, fungi, and animals
classified into the same domain but into
different kingdoms?
They all have eukaryotic cells, but are classified
in different kingdoms based on differences in
other characteristics.


If you come across an unusual single celled
organism, what parts of the cell would you
study in order to classify it into one of the three
domains?
The nucleus (or lack thereof) and the cell wall


Explain, using the traditional definition of
species, why it is difficult to classify some
bacteria and archaea at the species level.
A species can be defined as an interbreeding
group of organisms that produce fertile
offspring. But bacteria and archaea do not
breed to produce offspring; they reproduce by
binary fission. In reproduction, parents pass
genetic material to their offspring. However,
many bacteria and archaea can take up genetic
material from their environment – a transfer of
genes outside of typical reproduction that does
not occur in eukaryotes.


The Archaea lineage may include the first life
on Earth, which began under much different
environmental conditions from those present
today. What characteristics of archaea help to
support this statement?
Archaea exist in extreme environments that are
similar to those of early Earth.


The scientific name for humans is Homo
sapiens. What genus do humans belong to?
Homo


A particular DNA sequence accumulated three
mutations over 10,000 years. After how much
time would you expect this sequence to have
accumulated six more mutations? Explain.
20,000 years. Mutations occur at a fairly
constant rate.


Are species in the same family more or less
closely related than species in the same class?
Class is a more general taxon than family.
Organisms in the same family are more closely
related than organisms in the same class.

How many clades are represented in this
cladogram?





A
B
C
D
3
one with A, B, C and D
One with B, C and D
And one with C and D


What represents the derived characters that
were used to construct this cladogram?
A
B
C
D
4
3
2
1

The hash marks 1,2,3 and 4.



Where are the nodes in this cladogram and
what do they represent?
A
B
C
D
Nodes are where the side branches intersect
with the main branch. They represent the
common ancestor of the species in each clade.


Mutations in ___________ have been used to
study the migration routes of humans over the
past 200,000 years.
mitochondrial DNA


An infectious particle made only of a strand of
DNA or RNA surrounded by a protein coat.
virus


Any living organism or particle that can cause
an infectious disease.
pathogen


What key characteristics do all living things
share?
They reproduce, use nutrients and energy,
grow and develop, respond to the
environment, and have genetic material.


Why are viruses not classified as living?
They cannot reproduce on their own. They do
not grow or develop.


Infectious particles that cause disease in plants
and are made of single stranded RNA without
a protein coat.
viroids


An infectious particle made only of proteins
that can cause other proteins to fold incorrectly.
They are at the boundary between living and
nonliving. They contain no genetic material.
A prion


These play a role in mad cow disease. BSE –
bovine spongiform encephalopathy. And
Creutzfeld Jakob disease.
prions


Why is a prion even more deadly than a virus?
The body has no immune response against a
protein.


Prions were not widely known to be infectious
agents until the 1980’s. Give two reasons why
this might be so.
They are very small, and prion diseases often
incubate for many years before taking effect.


An RNA based disease spreads through pollen.
Is it likely due to a virus, viroid, or prion?
Explain.
Viroids, because they are made of RNA, are
passed through seeds or pollen, and infect
plants.


To multiply, viruses must take over the
functions of the cells they infect. Why does this
make it difficult to make effective antiviral
drugs?
Most drugs that would interfere with viral
replication would also kill the host cell.


Who, in 1892 was studying the tobacco mosaic
disease and determined that the diseasecausing agent was smaller than a bacteria.
Dmitri Ivanosky, he passed extracts of diseased
tobacco leaves through filter pores small
enough to strain out bacteria…. he found that
the extracts could still pass on the disease.


Who coined the term “viruses” and when?
Martinus Beijerinck in 1898. He showed that
the causing agent for the tobacco mosaic
disease could pass through agar gel. After
Ivanosky and Beijerinck, scientists began
finding that many diseases of unknown causes
could be explained by viruses.


A single viral particle is called a ________.
virion


The protein shell that surrounds the genetic
material of a virus is called a _______.
capsid


How does a virus identify its host?
By fitting its surface proteins to receptor
molecules on the surface of the host cell.



The genetic material of viruses can be _____ or
______; single-stranded, doubled-stranded,
________, ________, or ___________.
DNA, RNA
linear, circular, or segmented


Viruses that prey on bacteria.
bacteriophages


What is a very common example of a Tbacteriophage commonly found in the
intestines of mammals?
Escherichia coli


Describe how the structures of a bacteriophage
are well-suited for their functions.
The capsid houses the nucleic acids, the tail
fibers help with attachment, and the tail sheath
helps with injecting the genetic material of the
viruses.


What are the two basic pathways of infection
for a virus?
Lytic and Lysogenic


An infection pathway in which the host cell
bursts, releasing the new viral offspring into
the host’s system, where each then infects
another cell.
Lytic infection


A type of viral infection where the phage
combines its DNA into the host cell’s DNA.
Lysogenic infection


The viral phage DNA inserted into the host
cell’s DNA.
prophage


What are the main parts of a typical virus?
capsid, protein shell, genetic material


A wart is caused by a virus that may lie
dormant for years before any symptoms
appear. Does this resemble a lytic or lysogenic
infection?
Lysogenic. It is characterized by a virus that
lies dormant.


If the virus is a foreign invader, how is it
possible for the proteins of its capsid to match
the receptors on the host cell’s surface?
Over time, viruses that happened to have the
right protein ‘keys’ would survive and pass on
these traits to their offspring. Viruses without
the right proteins would not be able to
successfully infect the host and would
probably become extinct.




What are defenses against viruses?
How do viruses normally enter a host?
skin, cell membranes, cell walls
cuts, scrapes, mucous membranes (mouth,
nose, eyes, ears, genitalia)


What is the most familiar viral disease for
humans?
The common cold. =200 known viruses cause
the cold.


A rapid outbreak of an infection that affects
many people.
epidemic


A substance that stimulates the body’s own
immune response against invasion by
microbes.
vaccine


What are two examples of viral respiratory
disease that affect humans?
influenza and SARS (severe acute respiratory
syndrome)


What is the most commonly known retrovirus?
HIV (Human immunodeficiency virus)


How do retroviruses work differently from
other viruses?
A retrovirus contains RNA and uses the
enzyme reverse transcriptase to make a DNA
copy. Retro means backward. For most viruses,
DNA is used to make an RNA copy of the virus
in a cell.


The loss of white blood cells caused by viral
affects is called __________.
AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome


What makes HIV difficult to treat?
HIV has a very high mutation rate.


A weakened version of the virus, or parts of the
virus, that will cause the body to produce a
response.
vaccines


What viruses are children in America
vaccinated against?
Measles, mumps, rubella, chickenpox


A viral infection that causes a rash, itchy skin,
fever, fatigue, and is prevalent in children from
12 to 18 months.
chickenpox


A viral infection that causes yellow skin,
fatigue, and abdominal pain.
Hepatitis A


A viral infection that causes painful swelling in
the salivary glands and fever.
Mumps


Caused from an animal bite, this viral infection
causes anxiety, paralysis, and a fear of water.
Rabies


This viral infection causes fever, headache, and
body ache. It comes from the bite of an
infected mosquito and there is no vaccine.
West Nile


If a vaccine is in short supply, why is it often
recommended that older adults and children
get vaccinated first?
The immune systems of older adults and
children are often weaker than those of the rest
of the population, so they are more likely to
become infected than a healthy person who is
not very young or very old.


Why might getting a flu vaccination sometimes
cause you to get a mild case of the flu?
Because you may be getting a weakened strain
of the live virus in order to build up your
immune system.


People infected with HIV, the virus that causes
the disease AIDS, can become unable to fight
off infections by organisms that normally do
not harm people. Why is this so?
HIV affects the immune system of an infected
person, making him or her susceptible to
organisms that normally are harmless.


The most widespread and abundant organisms
on Earth are _____________.
Prokaryotes. They include bacteria and
archaea.




How many ‘types’ of bacteria are estimated to
exist?
How many prokaryotic cells are estimated to
be on the Earth?
1 billion
Ten to the thirtieth power.



One gram of soil may have as many as
________ bacterial cells and _______ types of
bacteria.
5 billion
10,000


Prokaryotes can be grouped based on their
need for ________.
oxygen


Prokaryotes that cannot live in the presence of
oxygen are called _________ __________.
Obligate anaerobes


Prokaryotes that need oxygen in their
environment are called _________ _________.
Obligate aerobes


Two examples of obligate aerobes that are
human pathogens are _______ and _______.
Tuberculosis and leprosy


Prokaryotes that can survive whether oxygen is
present in the environment or not.
Facultative aerobe


Bacteria are often associated with illness. Why
is this a misconception?
Only a small number of bacteria are
pathogenic.


Bacteria are often named based upon their
_________.
shapes


Rod shaped bacteria are called _________.
bacilli


Spiral shaped bacteria are called ___________.
Spirilla or spirochetes


Spherical bacteria are called ________.
cocci


A small piece of genetic material that can
replicate separately from the prokaryote’s main
chromosome.
plasmid


Bacteria may be differentiated by the amount
of ___________ found in the cell wall.
peptidoglycan


Gram __________ bacteria have a thin layer of
peptidoglycan and stain red.
negative


Gram __________ bacteria have a thicker
peptidoglycan layer and stain purple.
positive


Prokaryotes reproduce by a type of cell
division called _________ _________.
Binary fission


A process of asexual reproduction where
prokaryotes can exchange parts of their
chromosomes through a hollow bridge of pili
formed to connect two or more cells.
conjugation


During conditions unfavorable for survival,
some bacteria can produce an __________ , a
specialized cell with a thick, protective wall.
endospore


Why are disinfectants alone not enough to kill
all types of bacteria?
Some bacteria form endospores, which can
withstand exposure to disinfectants.


Prokaryotes take up foreign DNA. How is this
characteristic used in genetic engineering?
Pieces of genes can be inserted into the genetic
material of prokaryotes so that they will make
the protein products encoded in the genes or
copies of the genes themselves.


Prokaryotes multiply by binary fission, which
simply divides a cell in two. Why are
mutations and conjugation important for
natural selection in prokaryotes?
Binary fission produces no variation, but
mutations and conjugation do. Natural
selection requires variation in a population.


Bacteria in your mouth convert foods
containing sugar and starch into acids that can
then cause cavities in your teeth. These
bacteria will be present even if you brush your
teeth, floss, or use mouthwash. So why are
those hygiene habits so important?
These habits keep the populations down by
killing them or removing the food that they
convert into acids.


What are two ways in which prokaryotes that
live within our bodies are helpful to us?
They provide nutrients, and they exclude
pathogenic bacteria.


What kinds of foods require bacteria for their
production?
Dairy products such as cheese and yogurt, soy
products such as tofu and soy sauce, alcoholic
beverages, and pickled foods.


What role do bacteria play in agriculture?
Nitrogen fixation


A process that uses microbes and other living
things to break down pollutants.
bioremediation


Provide an example in which the use of
bioremediation either has improved the
environment or has the potential to do so.
Cleaning up industrial accidents, sewage, and
other waste.


How do prokaryotes lend stability to an
ecosystem?
Prokaryotes lend stability to an ecosystem
through their role as decomposers. Other
organisms rely on prokaryotes for nitrogen and
other compounds that are broken down
through prokaryote metabolic activity. Some
also release oxygen during photosynthesis.


A poison released by an organism.
toxin


This common bacteria invades the lungs and
kills the white blood cells that respond. The
tissue releases enzymes that cause swelling
which further damages the host lung tissue.
Mycobacterium tuberculosis


This bacteria normally lives in nasal passages.
It is transferred to food when people do not
wash their hands.
Staphylococcus aureus


Food contamination by this bacterium often
comes from improper home canning or dented
cans with microfractures.
Clostridium botulinum or botulism


If we regard ourselves as being under attack by
viruses and bacteria, how do we fight back?
For some viruses, we have vaccines; for
bacteria we have antibiotics


Who can adapt faster to the tactics of the other
– humans or bacteria?
Bacteria; because bacterial lifespans are so
brief, mutations accumulate much faster,
allowing them to quickly adapt to the
challenges we create, like antibiotics.


Chemicals that kill or slow the growth of
bacteria. They work by stopping bacteria from
making cell walls.
antibiotics


A common bacterium that causes an extremely
sore throat.
streptococcus


Why do antibiotics not work on viral
infections?
Viruses lack cell walls


Why don’t antibiotics affect our bodies’ own
cells?
Antibiotics act on characteristics that are
unique to bacterial cells, such as their cell walls.


How has the overuse of antibiotics caused a
serious public health crises?
Resistance occurs as a result of natural
selection. As individuals who are more
resistant are more likely to survive and
reproduce. This has led to the evolution of
multidrug-resistance strains of ‘superbugs’ that
are almost impossible to treat.


How can the overuse of antibiotics create
‘superbugs’?
They may create a selective pressure that
favors the bacteria they are intended to
destroy. Using antibiotics when bacteria are
not causing an illness may make some
resistant.


How can the underuse of antibiotics create
‘superbugs’?
Failure to take the entire course of antibiotics
prescribed for a bacterial infection. You may
not have destroyed all of the bacteria, only the
weakest ones.


Pesticide resistance occurs in much the same
way as antibiotic resistance. How could we
apply what we have learned about antibiotic
resistance to how pesticides are used in the
environment?
If pesticides are used without being needed,
resistance will build up so that when pesticides
are needed, they will not work.


The term flagellum comes from the latin word
flagnum, which means _________.
whip


The term conjugation comes from the Latin
word conjugare, which means ‘to join together’.
Using this meaning, explain how it relates to
what conjugation is.
Conjugation is the transfer of genetic material
between prokaryotes. It occurs when two or
more cells join together through a conjugation
bridge of pili.


The term epidemic comes from the Greek
words epi and demos which mean…
Upon people


A eukaryote that is not an animal, a plant, or a
fungus.
A protist


Protists can be divided informally into three
broad categories based on how they get their
food.
Animal like, plant like, and fungus like


What are the four kingdoms within the domain
Eukarya?
Animalia, Fungi, Plantae, Protista


What is the argument for placing protists in
more than one kingdom?
Techniques in molecular biology have revealed
how different some groups of protists are
compared to each other. They have as many
differences as the fungi, plant, and animal
kingdoms have compared to each other.


What observable trait might green algae and
plants share that support the molecular
evidence that these two groups are closely
related?
Both are green, have chloroplasts, are
eukaryotic, and are multicellular.


Organisms that get their food by ingesting it
are called heterotrophs, while those that make
their own food are called autotrophs.
Categorize animal like, plant like, and fungus
like protists using these two terms.
Animal like protists and funguslike protists are
heterotrophs …plantlike protists are
autotrophs


An informal term used to describe the many
phyla of animal like protists.
protozoa


Animal like protists that have one or more
flagella at some point in their life cycle.
zooflagellates


Prokaryotic flagella attach to the ________,
whereas eukaryotic flagella are extensions of
the ________.
Surface of the cell, cytoplasm


What role does a zooflagellate play for a
termite?
Termites cannot digest wood. The
zooflagellates break the wood down into
digestible nutrition.


Two groups of protozoa that can easily change
shape as they move are the _______ and the
_______.
Amoebas, foraminifera


A temporary extension of cytoplasm and
plasma membrane that helps protozoa move
and feed. A false foot.
pseudopod


Describe how an amoeba eats.
An amoeba eats by a process called
phagocytosis. It surrounds its food with its
pseudopod, and the outer membrane then
forms a food vacuole, or sac. Digestion
enzymes enter the food vacuole from the
surrounding cytoplasm, and digestion takes
place.


A group of protozoa, with pseudopods, and
form multichambered shells. They make up a
large group of marine protozoa.
Foraminifera


Paramecium have __________, short, hairlike
structures that cover some or all of the cell
surface and help the organism swim and
capture food.
cilia


What functions do the two kinds of nuclei
within Paramecium perform?
The macronucleus controls cell structures and
activities. Micronuclei contain all the cell’s
chromosomes and function only during
conjugation, a process of genetic exchange.




Protists cause some of the world’s most well
known infectious diseases. The phylum
__________ includes about 4000 species, all of
which are parasites of animals. Most members of
this phylum are known as sporozoans because
they form ____________ - infectious cells that
have tough outer coats. Malaria is caused by
sporozoans. It is caused by infection with the
protozoan __________.
Apicomplexa
Sporozoites
Plasmodium


How do the parasitic protists Plasmodium and
Giardia infect humans?
Plasmodium is transmitted by mosquito bites,
whereas Giardia is ingested through
contaminated water.


Many single-celled plantlike protists are freeliving aquatic organisms that, together with
photosynthetic bacteria, are known as
___________.
phytoplankton


____________ provide about half of the oxygen
in Earth’s atmosphere.
Phytoplankton


Several species of single-celled plantlike
protists, such as __________, live in colonies.
volvox


Photosynthetic plantlike protists are called
____________.
algae


A large group of single celled organisms that
swim with the aid of one or more flagella.
Most are photosynthetic. Structures include
contractile vacuoles, a pellicle, a nucleus,
chloroplasts, an eye spot, and flagella.
Euglenoids


A flexible coat like covering on the cell surface.
This feature (structure) allows the cell to
change shape. In some creatures, this structure
allows the organism to creep across solid
surfaces.
Pellicle


A single celled protist. 90% are marine
plankton. They have two flagella, one that
propels it forward and another that changes its
shape to turn it over or change direction. The
second flagella is wrapped around the body.
Some species even have a protective armor.
Some are bioluminescent.
Dinoflagellates


A large population of dinoflagellates can create
what is known as a ___ ______. When ocean
currents bring up nutrients from far below the
ocean surface a ___ ______ occurs. The higher
nutrient levels produce a bloom. The toxic
bloom may kill large numbers of fish and can
even contaminate fish that humans eat.
Red Tide


Tiny single- celled algae that are covered with
delicately patterned glass- like shells. All
release oxygen into the environment.
Diatoms


These may be found in water or on land. They
are multicellular and contain chlorophyll. They
are probably an early ancestor to land plants
because they have carotenoids, accessory
pigments, cell walls, and starch.
Green Algae


Giant kelps that form thick underwater forests.
Some may grow as high as 100 meters. They
are photosynthetic but have chlorophyll C.
Brown Algae


Most are found in the ocean. A few in
freshwater. They are filled with chlorophyll A.
They get their own color from the pigment
phycoerythrin . They can grow at very deep
depths because the pigments allow for the
absorption of blue light that reaches the deeper
parts of the ocean.
Red algae


All algae can reproduce______.
Asexually



If a multicellular organism contains chlorophyll
C but no silica, to which phylum does it likely
belong?
Phylum Phaeophyta.
The brown algae.


Many biologists argue that the euglenoids
should be classified as an animal- like protist
rather than a plantlike protist. Explain.
Some Euglenoids lack chrorophyll and eat
other organisms, while others use an animallike creeping method of locomotion.



As decomposers, fungus- like protists play an
important role in ecosystems by recycling
nutrients such as _____and _____ back into the
soil.
Carbon
Nitrogen


Why are fungus- like protists not classified as
fungus?
They can move during part of their life cycle,
while fungi cannot.


Eukaryotic oraganisms that have both funguslike and animal like traits. They can be divided
into two phyla: plasmodial ___ ______ and
cellular ____ _______.
Slime molds


For most of their life, these live in a single mass
of cytoplasm that actually is a large single cell
with many nuclei. They may grow as large as a
meter. They move like a giant amoeba.
Plasmodial slime molds


The dog vomit slime mold.
Fuligo Septica



Where are plasmodial slime molds typically
found?
On the underside of logs and on dead leaves
When food or moisture is in short supply it will
stop growing and develop reproductive
structures to produce spores.


Why are cellular slime molds interesting to
biologists?
Each cell in a cellular slime mold is
independent but they act as a group. They are
common in soil. When food is scarce,
individual cells can release chemical signals
that cause the cells to swarm together.


Fungus-like protists made of branching strands
of cells. Common in freshwater habitats. They
are decomposers but some are parasites for
plants or fish.
Water Molds


What is the best known water mold?
Phytophthora infestans- it caused the potato
blight in Ireland from 1845 to 1849. More than
one million people died of starvation.


In what ways are slime molds and water molds
similar to fungi?
These fungus like protists also are decomposers
that recycle nutrients back into the soil.


Describe how slime molds help other
organisms within an ecosystem obtain
nutrients.
They decompose organic matter, breaking it
down so that the nutrients return to the soil.


What might be the advantage of being able to
switch from living as separate cells to become a
coordinated unit acting like a single organism?
The different body forms can be an advantage
when conditions change. When there is plenty
of food, the individual cells find food easily.
When food becomes scarce, they may be more
likely to survive by working together to find
and share food.



Fungi are amazingly diverse. Scientists have
named _________ species and estimate that
__________ exist.
70,000
1.5 million


Members of the kingdom Fungi fall into one of
three groups- _________, __________, and the
___________.
The singled-celled yeasts, the molds, and the
true fungi
What differentiates fungi plants?
1) Plants have chlorophyll, fungi do not
2)Fungi get food by absorbing it from their
environment.
3)Plants have true roots, stems, and leaves. Fungi
do not
4) Plant cell walls are made of cellulose. Fungal
cell walls are made of chitin.(chitin is what
insect exoskeletons are made from)



The bodies of multicellular fungi are made of
long strands called ________.
hyphae


Hyphae often group together on long tangled
masses to from a _________. It usually forms an
underground network.
mycelium


A reproductive structure of a fungus that
grows above ground.
fruiting body (mushrooms)


How is the way that fungi get their food
different from that of any other group of
organisms?
Fungi absorb their food directly from the
environment, using enzymes to digest it before
it enters the fungi.





The Kingdom Fungi is divided into what four
main groups?
primitive fungi(phylum Chytridiomycota)
sac fungi( phylum Ascomycota)
bread molds(phylum Zygomycota)
club fungi(phylum Basidiomycota)


The smallest and simplest group of fungi. The
only fungi with flagellated spores.
Primitive, Fungi, chytrids


Yeasts, Penicillium, morels, truffles…………
are all ________ _______.
sac fungi


The yeast that makes bread rise is ________
_________.
Saccharomyces cerevisiae



The mold that grows on an orange is the source
for an antibiotic. The mold is _____ ______ and
the antibiotic is _________.
Penicillium chrysogenum
penicillin


The mold that makes the poison called
aflatoxin that can contaminate cereals, nuts,
and milk.
Aspergillis flavus


Mutualistic partnerships between fungi and the
roots of certain plants. They help plants to fix
nitrogen – they take in inorganic nitrogen from
the soil and convert it to nitrates and ammonia.
Mycorrhizae


The phylum that includes mushrooms,
puffballs, shelf fungi, rusts and smuts.
club fungi


Fission is identical to ______.
mitosis




The reproductive features of club fungi are
_____ , while bread molds are ______ , and sac
fungi are _______.
basidia
zygospore
asci



Basidia are found on the undersides of _______.
They form within the ______.
mushrooms
gills


Spore forming structures at the tips of hyphae.
sporangia


Basidiomycota
Club fungi


Zygomycota
Bread molds


Ascomycota
Sac fungi


How might producing spores benefit an
organism?
Spores allow offspring to grow far from the
parent organism, colonize a new area, and
thereby minimize competition for space in the
original location. Spores allow many more
offspring to be produced.


Describe how fungi use hyphae to obtain their
food.
The hyphae extend into the food source and
release enzymes that break the food down.
Nutrients are then absorbed across the cell
walls.


The mycelium of a fungus grows underground.
In what ways might this be helpful for the
fungus?
It might provide protection from the
environment to be underground. Even if the
aboveground fruiting body is harmed, the
fungus is likely to survive.



The yeast Candida is a fungus found in
humans generally in the _____ and _____.
Populations may grow and cause disease when
the immune system is damaged.
nose
mouth



Some fungal pathogens, such as _____ and
______ _____ , have fairly mild effects for
humans.
ringworm
athlete's foot


Why is it difficult to treat fungal infections?
They are eukaryotes with similar cell structure
to ours.


Dutch elm disease is caused by a fungus that is
transmitted by elm bark beetles. This disease
has destroyed more than _____ of the elms in
the northern U.S.
half


How can genetic engineering help peach crops
from a fungus called peach scab, and Gray
mold for strawberries?
Chemical sprays called fungicides help, but
crops can be genetically engineered to resist
fungi.


A symbiotic relationship in which both
organisms benefit.
mutualism


A mutualistic relationship between a fungus
and algae or photosynthetic bacteria. Only
certain fungi, algae, or cyanobacteria can
combine to form a ______ body.
lichen


Lichens produce hundreds of unique
chemicals, including pigments used as dyes in
traditional cultures and compounds that have
________ properties.
antibiotic


Mutualistic associations between plant roots
and soil fungi are called ______. More than 80%
of plants have _____ on their roots.
Mycorrhizae

The leafcutter ants of Central and South
America don’t just use fungi, they grow them.
The ants literally build a garden of leaf pieces
underground. They then add pieces of fungus
around the leaves. The fungus absorbs the leaf
pieces and grow and the ants later eat the
fungus







How are lichens useful to humans?
Lichens produce oxygen
They grow in unfavorable environments which
allows other organisms to grow.
They are indicators of air quality.
They are decomposers and return nutrients to
the soil.
They can be used to produce antibiotics.
Their pigments can be used as dyes.