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1.Can you explain the difference between the notions ‘formal empire’ (the Roman model) and ‘informal empire’ (the Athens model)? Which of them is appropriate for the modern world?
2.Is the United States, in your view, an empire? Give your reasoning.
Task 1
Read the text and find the author’s arguments in support of the idea that the US is an empire. Do you find the arguments convincing?
1
(based on Conclusion Chapter from Empire. How Britain Made the Modern World by Niall
Ferguson. Penguin books LTD, London, 2004)
What lessons can the United States today draw from the British experience of empire?
The obvious one is that the most successful economy in the world – as Britain was for the most of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries – can do a very great deal to impose its preferred values on less technologically advanced societies. It is nothing short of astonishing that Great
Britain was able to govern so much of the world without running up an especially large defence bill. To be precise, Britain’s defence expenditure averaged little more than three per cent of net national product between 1870 and 1913, and it was lower for the rest of the nineteenth century.
This was money well spent. In theory open international markets would have been preferable to imperialism; but in practice global free trade was not and is not naturally occurring. The British
Empire enforced it.
By comparison, the United States today is vastly wealthier relative to the rest of the world than Britain ever was. In 1913 Britain’s share of the world output was eight per cent; the equivalent figure for the US in 1998 was 22 per cent. Nor should anyone pretend, at least in fiscal terms, that the cost of expanding the American Empire, even if it were to mean a great many small wars like the one in Afghanistan, would be prohibitive. […] Even after big cuts in military expenditure, the United States is still the world’s only superpower, with an unrivalled financial and military-technological capability. Its defence budget is fourteen times that of China and twenty-two times that of Russia. Britain never enjoyed such a lead over her imperial rivals.
The hypothesis, in other words, is a step in the direction of political globalization, with the United States shifting from informal to formal empire much as late Victorian Britain once did. That is certainly what we should expect if history does repeat itself. […] The British Empire began as a network of coastal bases and informal spheres of influence, much like the post-1945
American ‘empire’. But real and perceived threats to their commercial interests constantly tempted the British to progress from informal to formal imperialism. That was how so much of the atlas came to be coloured imperial red.
No one could deny the extent of the American informal empire – the empire of multinational corporations, of Hollywood movies and even of TV evangelists. Is this so very different from the early British Empire of monopoly trading companies and missionaries? Nor is
1 Текст предоставлен Е.Б. Ястребовой
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it any coincidence that a map showing the principal US military bases around the world looks remarkably like a map of Royal Navy coaling stations
2
a hundred years ago. Even recent
American foreign policy recalls the gunboat diplomacy 3 of the British Empire in its Victorian heyday
4 , when a little trouble on the periphery could be dealt with by a short sharp ‘surgical strike’. The only difference is that today’s gunboats fly.
Yet in three respects the process of ‘Anglobalization’ is fundamentally different today.
On close inspection, American strengths may not be the strengths of a natural imperial hegemon.
For one thing, the British imperial power relied on the massive export of capital and people. But since 1972 the American industry has been a net im porter of capital (five per cent of gross domestic product in 2002) and it remains the favoured destination of immigrants from around the world, not a producer of would-be colonial emigrants. Britain in its heyday was able to draw on a culture of unabashed imperialism which dates back to the Elizabethan period, whereas the US – born not in a war against slavery […], but in a war against the British Empire – will always be a reluctant ruler of other people. Since Woodrow Wilson’s intervention to restore the elected government in Mexico in 1913, the American approach has been to fire some shells, march in, hold elections and then get the hell out – until the next crisis. Haiti is one recent example,
Kosovo another. Afghanistan may yet prove to be the next, or perhaps Iraq.
[…] The Empire that rules the world today is both more and less than its British begetter
(прародитель). It has a much bigger economy, many more people, a much larger arsenal. But it is an empire that lacks the drive to export its capital, its people and its culture to those backward regions which need them most urgently and which, if they are neglected, will breed the greatest threats to its security. It is an empire, in short, that dare not speak its name. It is an empire in denial.
The American Secretary of State Dean Acheson famously said that Britain had lost an empire but failed to find a role. Perhaps the reality is that the Americans have taken our (British) old role without yet facing the fact that an empire comes with it. The technology of overseas rule may have changed – the Dreadnoughts may have given way to F-158. But like it or not, empire is as much a reality today as it was throughout the three hundred years when Britain ruled, and made the modern world.
2 Coaling stations (fuelling stations) are repositories of fuel (coal & later oil) that have been located to service commercial and naval vessels.
3 Gunboat diplomacy - diplomacy conducted by threats of military intervention, especially by a major power against a militarily weak state ( дипломатия канонерок)
4
Heyday - the period of greatest popularity, success, or power; prime.
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1.How do you understand the term the “American dream”?
2.What basic values underpin the American dream?
3.Is there a downside to these values?
The American Creed is what makes us great as a nation - and also what fosters some big problems
Robert J. Samuelson
I am proud to be an American; most of us are. Our patriotism is fierce, if often quiet. A recent
Gallup poll asked respondents in 16 countries whether they would like to live elsewhere.
Americans finished almost last. Only about 11 percent of us would move. By contrast, 38 percent of Britons, 30 percent of Germans, 20 percent of Japanese and 19 percent of Canadians would. Why, then, are we so mad at our leaders and society? One neglected answer is this:
America's glories and evils are tightly fused together.
The things that we venerate about America - its respect for the individual, its opportunity, its economic vitality, its passion for progress - also breed conditions that we despise: crime, family breakdown, inequality, cynicism, vulgarity and stress, to name a few. Naturally optimistic,
Americans reject any connection between our virtues and vices. We refuse to see, as sociologist
Seymour Martin Lipset argues in an important new book, that "seemingly contradictory aspects of... society are intimately related."
But they are, and in an election year, the relationship is highly relevant. Only by grasping it can we keep our perspective on the campaign's inevitable excesses. Already, we are deluged with anguished analyses of our faults and vast schemes for self-improvement. Both exaggerate our problems and our capacity to cure them: some national conditions aren't easily changed.
The American Creed - our distinct set of values - blends freedom, individualism and egalitarianism. This mix has fired economic advance. Why do we lead the world in computers?
The answer is mostly culture. We love to create, experiment and tinker. We are the land of Apple
Computer and Netscape. Every year, more than 600,000 new businesses incorporate. We have the largest global pool of venture capital. But the same emphasis on individual striving, success and liberty can also inhibit social control and loosen people's sense of communal obligation.
Crime becomes just another path to "making it." Divorce rises if marriage seems to imperil selffulfillment. Because we worship individual effort, we are more tolerant of failure and inequality than other nations. In 1987, a poll asked whether "government should provide everyone with a guaranteed basic income." Only 21 percent of Americans agreed - about a third of the number of
Germans (56 percent) or Britons (61 percent). Naturally, our welfare state palls next to theirs.
Nor should we be surprised that:
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Among advanced societies, we are the richest - and the most unequal. In 1995,
Americans' incomes averaged roughly 20 to 30 percent above those of Europe and Japan. But
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the richest 90th percentile of Americans have incomes nearly six times higher than the poor at the 10th percentile. In Germany, the same ratio is 3 to 1; in Canada and Italy, it's about 4 to 1.
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We have the most successful democracy - and among the lowest voter turnouts. In the
Gallup poll, more Americans (64 percent) were satisfied with democracy than people anywhere else. Canadians (62 percent) were closest; Britons (40 percent) and Japanese (35 percent) were well behind. Yet, in nonpresidential elections, less than half of eligible
Americans vote.
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Although decidedly moralistic, we have one of the world's most violent societies. In
1990, the American murder rate was more than twice as high as Germany's and nine times higher than Japan's.
Contradictions abound. "Concern for the legal rights of accused persons and civil liberties in general is tied to opposition to gun control and difficulty in applying crime-control measures," writes Lipset. Naturally, Americans are among the world's most gun-owning peoples. In 1993,
29 percent of U.S. households had handguns, compared with 5 percent of Canadian and 2 percent of Australian.
To some extent, the proof that our virtues and vices are connected comes from abroad, where the advance of American values has created a natural experiment in social change. The loosening of tight social controls in Russia, China and South Africa has led to more freedom -and crime. In
Europe and Japan, prosperity and the celebration of individuality have coincided with more divorce and crime. Between 1970 and 1991, divorce rates rose 40 percent in Germany and 50 percent in Japan (though both remain well below U.S. levels).
The American Creed was already well established by the 1830s, when Alexis de Tocqueville first described it. Even in Colonial times, America was less rigid socially than Europe. Land was a great leveler. In America, most farmers owned it; in England, 60 percent of the population didn't. Still, Colonial America brimmed with hereditary privileges and arbitrary power. In a 1992 book, historian Gordon S. Wood of Brown University argued that the decisive break occurred during the Revolution itself, which created a social and intellectual upheaval.
Loyalists decamped to Canada, which (like Europe) remained a more deferential, communal and paternalistic society. But in America, the legitimacy of unchangeable social distinctions collapsed. Jefferson said that men would advance based on "virtue and talent", and not on birth.
The Revolution "made the interests and prosperity of ordinary people - their pursuit of happiness
- the goal of society and government" wrote Wood.
The resulting mind-set often means disappointment and division. All authority is suspect, because it elevates some over others and triggers an inbred distrust of "aristocracy" - now "elites" or callous CEOs. Popular culture is democratic and, therefore, sometimes shallow and offensive.
Talk radio and trash TV are only new expressions of old impulses. Progress is never sufficient, because happiness - though constantly pursued - can never be guaranteed. Politicians fall short of the ideals that we (and they) set: one reason why we attack them even while admiring our system.
The election will expose these contradictions but not dispose of them. It's great to be an
American, but we are burdened as well as blessed by our beliefs. That defines the American
Drama.
NEWSWEEK March 11, 1996
Reading notes
Creed - a summary of articles of religious beliefs, any system of beliefs or principles.
Gallup poll - assessment of public opinion by questioning a representative sample of people, esp. in order to forecast voting at an election.
Gallup polls are named after the American statistician, George Horace Gallup, who invented them. individualism - is closely allied to ideas of freedom. It encompasses a number of goals which individuals may wish to attain including maximizing personal opportunities, realizing one's potential, the fulfillment of aspirations, enjoyment of wealth, property and privacy as well as the security which results from a
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well-ordered and peaceful society, egalitarianism - political theory that all members of society have equal rights and should have equal treatment. welfare state - a term used to describe a national system when all citizens are required to contribute through taxation or other contributions to the provision of social services such as health, education, financial benefits, pensions, etc. These services are available to all according to need on a free or subsidised basis. to pall - to become boring, insipid, wearisome or tiresome; to become cloyed or satiated. percentile - a) in statistics any of 99 points at which a range of data is divided to make 100 groups of equal size; b) any of these groups.
Alexis de Tocqueville (1805-1859) - French democratic theorist, author of De La Democratie en
Amerique (Democracy in America) and De L'Ancien Regime, which set out nineteenth century liberal ideas. Tocqueville used the term "democracy" meaning a society where there is social equality and an absence of class hierarchy and privilege. Over a century later, in the 1960s, Tocqueville's ideas on democracy were echoed in the sociological studies of American political scientists.
Colonial times . In 1765 British America was comprised of thirteen colonies which came under the jurisdiction of Parliament in London, and whose people were subjects of the King (George III at that time). Each of the colonies had its own political institutions, but these were relatively powerless, with no legislative and few executive powers.
The American Revolution (1775-1783) -the war that established the 13 American colonies as independent from Britain, often called the American War of Independence.
Loyalists - Colonial Americans who remained loyal to Britain during the American Revolution.
Jefferson, Thomas (1743-1826) - US politician and 3rd President. A delegate to the Second Continental
Congress (1775), he drafted the Declaration of Independence. Jefferson was Governor of Virginia
(1779-1781), Minister to France (1785) and Secretary of State (1790). He served as Vice-President under
John Adams (1797-1801) and as President (1801-1809). paternalism - a tendency among some, especially politicians, to claim that they have a deeper understanding of how to improve the condition of individuals and society than the people themselves.
They may suggest they know what is best for people, who, having inferior knowledge, do not understand what is in their own best interests. The relationship between paternalists and the people can be described as similar to that of father and child. the pursuit of happiness - a quote from the American Declaration of Independence. "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness" (American
Declaration of Independence).
CEO - (US) chief executive officer.
Comprehension exercise
Comment on the notions expressed by Robert J. Samuelson:
1.
The things that Americans venerate about America breed conditions that they despise.
However they reject any connection between their virtues and vices.
2.
The American Creed (the Americans' distinct set of values) has fired economic advance.
3.
The emphasis on individual striving, success and liberty can inhibit social control and loosen people's sense of communal obligation.
4.
Because Americans worship individual effort, they are more tolerant of failure and inequality than other nations.
5.
To some extent, the proof that American virtues and vices are connected comes from abroad.
6.
Even in Colonial times, America was less rigid socially than Europe. Land was a great leveler.
7.
Colonial America brimmed with hereditary privileges and arbitrary power.
8.
But in America, the legitimacy of unchangeable social distinctions collapsed. Jefferson said that men would advance based on "virtue and talent" and not on birth.
9.
The Revolution "made the interests and prosperity of ordinary people - their pursuit of happiness - the goal of society and government."
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10.
Progress is never sufficient, because happiness - though constantly pursued - can never be guaranteed.
11.
Popular culture is democratic and, therefore, sometimes shallow and offensive.
Seymour Martin Lipset argues that "seemingly contradictory aspects of ... society are intimately related."
List all the contradictions mentioned in the article. Comment on the relationship.
In a three-minute statement compare the American basic values with those of the country you study.
Ex. 1. A) Find words in the text to match the definitions below, reproduce the context they are used in
B) Give their synonyms
C) Suggest their Russian equivalents
D) Use the words in sentences of your own
1.
to help the growth or development of (sth.)
2.
to respect deeply, regard as sacred
3.
to lead to (sth.), to cause
4.
connected with what is being discussed, what is happening, what is being done,
5.
to understand
6.
to fill or overwhelm with a great quantity
7.
to mix together
8.
to fiddle, or work in an unskilled way, with machinery, etc.
9.
an undertaking or scheme that involves some risk
10.
to stop or hinder (someone from doing sth.)
11.
to endanger
12.
one who would remove all social or political inequalities
13.
not decided by rules or laws but by a person's own opinion
14.
respectful, considerate, reverential
15.
activity; hobby; interest; occupation; pastime
Ex. 2. Continue the string of collocations, translate them. Use some of the word combinations in sentences of your own.
1.
to foster development, __________________, __________________, _________________.
2.
to breed contempt, __________________, ___________________, __________________.
3.
arbitrary arrest, __________________, ___________________, ___________________.
4.
business, ________________, _________________, _________________ venture.
5.
to inhibit development, _________________, __________________, ___________________.
6.
deferential society, ___________________, __________________, ___________________.
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Ex. 3. Fill in the gaps with the words from ex. 1 and ex. 2.
1.
Railway Minister is unlikely _________________ with basic passenger fares but may announce some new trains and measures to improve services.
2.
Sri Lankan officials claim that the UN investigation threatens to _______________ the development of the island.
3.
The Great Depression was a great________________ that reduced (social) differences in the face of common want.
4.
According to the author, democracy is not likely to come about unless leadership becomes _______________ to democratisation and governance reform.
5.
__________________ decision-making by the powers that be is common in academia.
6.
The ethnic, religious, and political diversity of the region has historically _____________ conflict.
7.
The purpose of the visit is _______________ economic relations between the two countries, especially in the field of agriculture.
8.
Mary Wollstonecraft’s work in
______________ of equality for women led to her being dubbed the founder of the British Women's Rights Movement.
9.
In fact, China was once at the centre of a regional security system, and other states had to conduct their relations with Beijing in a _________________ manner.
10.
While Britain has been forced to worship at the altar of equality and _______________ the values and beliefs of minorities, no-one noticed that the place was falling apart.
11.
It was difficult ________________ the idea that a handful of revolutionaries had managed to seize the entire Egyptian army.
12.
Students who search for broad terms on the Internet can be _______________ by useless or offensive information.
13.
Government income redistribution thus not only lowers working individuals' incomes but also ________________ economic growth .
14.
The essential problem is that the EU was founded as a political venture but quickly grew into a (promising) economic ____________________.
15.
And George Bush has relentlessly promoted a cultural view of the world that
________________ religiosity, patriotism, and uncritical obedience to government.
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http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/10/11/the_myth_of_amer ican_exceptionalism
Pre-reading questions:
1.
Can you define the term exceptionalism? Does it necessarily imply superiority?
2.
Is it typical of great nations to consider themselves exceptional? Can you give examples of what such nations pride themselves on or did so in the past?
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The idea that the United States is uniquely virtuous may be comforting to Americans. Too bad it’s not true.
By Stephen M. Walt
5
Over the last two centuries, prominent Americans have described the United States as an
“empire of liberty”, a “shining city on a hill”, the “last best hope of Earth”, the “leader of the free world, and the “indispensable nation”. These enduring tropes explain why all presidential candidates feel compelled to offer ritualistic paeans
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to America’s greatness and why President
Barack Obama landed in hot water – most recently, from Mitt Romney – for saying that while he believed in “American exceptionalism”, it was no different from “British exceptionalism”,
“Greek exceptionalism”, or any other country’s brand of patriotic chest-thumping.
Most statements of “American exceptionalism” presume that America’s values, political system, and history are unique and worthy of universal admiration. They also imply that the
United States is both destined and entitled to play a distinct and positive role on the world stage.
The only thing wrong with this self-congratulatory portrait of America’s global role is that it is mostly a myth. Although the United States possesses certain unique qualities – from high level of religiosity to a political culture that privileges individual freedom – the conduct of
US foreign policy has been determined primarily by its relative power and by inherently competitive nature of international politics. By focusing on their supposedly exceptional qualities, Americans blind themselves to the ways that they are a lot like everyone else.
This unchallenged faith in American exceptionalism makes it harder for Americans to understand why others are less enthusiastic about US dominance, often alarmed by US policies, and frequently irritated by what they see as US hypocrisy, whether the subject is possession of nuclear weapons, conformity with international law, or America’s tendency to condemn the conduct of others while ignoring its own failings. Ironically, US foreign policy would probably be more effective if Americans were less convinced of their own unique virtues and less eager to proclaim them.
What we need, in short, is a more realistic and critical assessment of America’s true character and contributions. In that spirit, I offer here the Top 5 Myths about American
Exceptionalism.
Myth 1
There Is Something Exceptional About American Exceptionalism.
Whenever American Leaders refer to the “unique” responsibilities of the United States, they are saying that it is different from other powers and that these differences require them to take on special burdens.
Yet there is nothing unusual about such lofty declarations; indeed, those who make them are treading a well-worn path. Most great powers have considered themselves superior to their rivals and have believed that they were advancing some greater good when they imposed their preferences on others. The British thought they were bearing the “white man’s burden”, while
French colonialists invoked la mission civilisatrice to justify their empire. Portugal, whose imperial activities were hardly distinguished, believed it was promoting a certain missão civilizadora . Even many officials of the former Soviet Union genuinely believed they were leading the world toward a socialist utopia despite the many cruelties that communist rule inflicted. Of course, the United States has by far the better claim to virtue than Stalin or his
5 Stephen Martin Walt (born July 2, 1955) is an American professor of international affairs at Harvard
University's John F. Kennedy School of Government.
6 Paean [ˈpiːən] - a joyous song or hymn of praise, tribute, thanksgiving, or triumph
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successors, but Obama was right to remind us that all countries prize their own particular qualities.
So when Americans proclaim they are exceptional and indispensable, they are simply the latest nation to sing a familiar old song. Among great powers, thinking you’re special is the norm, not the exception.
Myth 2
The United States Behaves Better Than Other Nations Do
Declarations of American exceptionalism rest on the belief that the United States is a uniquely virtuous nation, one that loves peace, nurtures liberty, respects human rights, and embraces the rule of law. Americans like to think their country behaves much better than other states do, and certainly better than other great powers.
If only it were true. The United States may not have been as brutal as the worst states in world history, but a dispassionate look at the historical record belies most claims about
America’s moral superiority.
For starters, the United States has been one of the most expansionist powers in modern history. It began as 13 small colonies clinging to the Eastern Seaboard, but eventually expanded across North America, seizing Texas, Arizona, New Mexico, and California from Mexico in
1846. Along the way, it eliminated most of the native population and confined the survivors to impoverished reservations. By the mid-19 th
century, it had pushed Britain out of the Pacific
Northwest and consolidated its hegemony over the Western Hemisphere.
The United States has fought numerous wars since then – starting several of them – and its wartime conduct has hardly been a model of restraint. […] The United States dropped more than 6 million tons of bombs during the Indochina war, including tons of napalm and lethal defoliants like Agent Orange, and it is directly responsible for the deaths of many of the roughly
1 million civilians who died in that war.
[…] US drones and Special Forces are going after suspected terrorists in at least five countries at present and have killed an unknown number of innocent civilians in the process.
Some of these actions may have been necessary to make Americans more prosperous and secure.
But while Americans would undoubtedly regard such acts as indefensible if some foreign country were doing them to us, hardly any US politicians have questioned these policies. Instead,
Americans still wonder, “Why do they hate us?”
The United States talks a good game on human rights and international law, but it has refused to sign most human rights treaties, is not a party to the International Criminal Court, and has been all too willing to cozy up to dictators – remember our friend Hosni Mubarak? – with abysmal human rights records. If that were not enough, the abuses at Abu Ghraib and the George
W. Bush administration’s reliance on waterboarding 7
, extraordinary rendition
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, and preventive detention should shake America’s belief that it consistently acts in a morally superior fashion.
Obama’s decision to retain many of these policies suggests they are not temporary aberration.
The United States never conquered a vast overseas empire or caused millions to die through tyrannical blunders like China’s Great Leap Forward or Stalin’s forced collectivization.
And given the vast power at its disposal for much of the past century, Washington certainly could have done much worse. But the record is clear: US leaders have done what they thought they had to do when confronted by external dangers, and they paid scant attention to moral principles along the way. The idea that the United States is uniquely virtuous may be comforting to Americans; too bad it’s not true.
Myth 3
America’s Success Is Due to Its Special Genius.
7 Waterboarding - an interrogation technique in which water is forced into a detainee's mouth and nose so as to induce the sensation of drowning
8 Rendition - handing over prisoners to countries where torture is allowed
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The United States has enjoyed remarkable success, and Americans tend to portray their rise to world power as a direct result of the political foresight of the Founding Fathers, the virtues of the US Constitution, the priority placed on individual liberty, and the creativity and hard work of the American people. In this narrative, the United States enjoys an exceptional global position today because it is, well, exceptional .
There is more than a grain of truth to this version of American history. It’s not an accident that immigrants came to America in droves in search of economic opportunity, and the
“melting pot” myth facilitated the assimilation of each wave of new Americans. America’s scientific and technological achievements are fully deserving of praise and owe something to the openness and vitality of the American political order.
But America’s past success is due as much to good luck as to any uniquely American virtues. The new nation was lucky that the continent was lavishly endowed with natural resources and traversed by navigable rivers. It was lucky to have been founded far from the other great powers and even luckier that the native population was less advanced and highly susceptible to European diseases. Americans were fortunate that the European great powers were at war for much of the republic’s early history, which greatly facilitated its expansion across the continent, and its global primacy was ensured after the other great powers fought two devastating world wars. This account of America’s rise does not deny that the United States did many things right, but it also acknowledges that America’s present position owes as much to good fortune as to any special genius or “manifest destiny”.
Myth 4
The United States Is Responsible for Most of the Good in the World
Americans are fond of giving themselves credit for positive international developments.
President Bill Clinton believed the United States was “indispensable to the forging of stable political relations,” and the late Harvard University political scientist Samuel P. Huntington thought US primacy was central “to the future of freedom, democracy, open economies, and international order in the world.” […] Given all the high-fives American leaders have given themselves, it is hardly surprising that most Americans see their country as an overwhelmingly positive force in world affairs.
Once again, there is something to this line of argument, just not enough to make it entirely accurate. The United States has made undeniable contributions to peace and stability in the world over the past century, including the Marshall Plan, the creation and management of the
Bretton Woods system, its rhetorical support for the core principles of democracy and human rights, and its mostly stabilizing military presence in Europe and the Far East. But the belief that all good things flow from Washington’s wisdom overstates the US contribution by a wide margin.
For starters, though Americans watching Saving Private Ryan or Patton may conclude that the United States played the central role in vanquishing Nazi Germany, most of the fighting was in Eastern Europe and the main burden of defeating Hitler’s war machine was borne by the
Soviet Union. Similarly, though the Marshall Plan and NATO played important roles in Europe’s post-World War II success, Europeans deserve at least as much credit for rebuilding their economies, constructing a novel economic and political union, and moving beyond four centuries of sometimes bitter rivalry. […]
Moreover, […] the spread of liberal ideals is a global phenomenon with roots in the
Enlightenment, and European Philosophers and political leaders did much to advance the democratic ideal. Similarly, the abolition of slavery and the long effort to improve the status of women owe more to Britain and other democracies than to the United States, where progress in both areas trailed many other countries. […]
Finally, any honest accounting of the past half-century must acknowledge the downside of American primacy. The United States has been the major producer of greenhouse gases for
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most of the last hundred years and thus a principal cause of the adverse changes that are altering the global environment. The United States stood on the wrong side of the long struggle against apartheid in South Africa and backed plenty of unsavoury dictatorships – including saddam
Hussein’s – when short-term strategic interests dictated. […]
Bottom line: Americans take too much credit for global progress and accept too little blame for areas where US policy has in fact been counterproductive. Americans are blind to their weak spots, and in ways that have real-world consequences. […]
Myth 5
God Is on Our Side.
A crucial component of American exceptionalism is the belief that the United States has a divinely ordained mission to lead the rest of the world. Ronald Reagan told audiences that there was “some divine plan” that placed America here […]. The same idea was expressed, albeit less nobly, in Otto von Bismarck’s alleged quip that “God has a special providence for fools, drunks, and the United States.”
Confidence is a valuable commodity for any country. But when a nation starts to think it enjoys the mandate of heaven and becomes convinced that it cannot fail or be led astray by scoundrels or incompetents, then reality is likely to deliver a swift rebuke. […]
Despite America’s many successes, the country is hardly immune from setbacks, follies, and boneheaded blunders. If you have doubts about that, just reflect on how a decade of illadvised tax cuts, two costly and unsuccessful wars, and a financial meltdown driven mostly by greed and corruption have managed to squander the privileged position the United States enjoyed at the end of the 20 th
century. Instead of assuming that God is on their side, perhaps Americans should heed Abraham Lincoln’s admonition that our greatest concern should be “whether we are on God’s side.” […]
America has its own special qualities, as all countries do, but it is still a state embedded in a competitive global system. It is far stronger and richer than most, and its geographical position is remarkably favourable. These advantages give the United States a wider range of choice in its conduct of foreign affairs, but they don’t ensure that its choices will be good ones. Far from being a unique state whose behavior is radically different from that of other great powers, the
Unites States has behaved like all the rest, pursuing its own self-interest first and foremost, seeking to improve its relative position over time, and devoting relatively little blood or treasure to purely idealistic pursuits. Yet, just like past great powers, it has convinced itself that it is different, and better, than everyone else.
International politics is a contact sport, and even powerful states must compromise their political principles for the sake of security and prosperity. Nationalism is also a powerful force, and it inevitably highlights the country’s virtues and sugarcoats its less savoury aspects. But if
Americans want to be truly exceptional, they might start by viewing the whole idea of
“American exceptionalism” with a more skeptical eye.
1.
The Empire of Liberty is a theme developed first by Thomas Jefferson to identify America's world responsibility to spread freedom across the globe. Jefferson saw America's mission in terms of setting an example, expansion into the west, and by intervention abroad. Major exponents of the theme have been Abraham Lincoln (in the Gettysburg Address ), Theodore
Roosevelt , Woodrow Wilson , Franklin D. Roosevelt , Harry Truman , Ronald Reagan , Bill
Clinton , and George W. Bush .
2.
A City upon a Hill is a phrase from the parable of Salt and Light in Jesus 's Sermon on the
Mount . In Matthew 5:14, he tells his listeners, "You are the light of the world. A city that is
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set on a hill cannot be hidden." In the twentieth century, the image was used a number of times in American politics. On 9 January 1961, President-Elect John F. Kennedy returned the phrase to prominence during an address delivered to the General Court of Massachusetts:
“...I have been guided by the standard John Winthrop set before his shipmates on the flagship Arbella three hundred and thirty-one years ago, as they, too, faced the task of building a new government on a perilous frontier. "We must always consider", he said, "that we shall be as a city upon a hill—the eyes of all people are upon us". Today the eyes of all people are truly upon us—and our governments, in every branch, at every level, national, state and local, must be as a city upon a hill — constructed and inhabited by men aware of their great trust and their great responsibilities.”
President Ronald Reagan used the image as well, in his 1984 acceptance of the Republican
Party nomination and in his January 11, 1989, farewell speech to the nation:
"I've spoken of the shining city all my political life…. And how stands the city on this winter night? … After 200 years, two centuries, she still stands strong and true to the granite ridge, and her glow has held no matter what storm. And she's still a beacon, still a magnet for all who must have freedom, for all the pilgrims from all the lost places who are hurtling through the darkness, toward home."
3.
The Bretton Woods system of monetary management established the rules for commercial and financial relations among the world's major industrial states in the mid-20th century. The
Bretton Woods system was the first example of a fully negotiated monetary order intended to govern monetary relations among independent nation-states.
In pairs, discuss how you understand the phrases/sentences below (you may want to use a dictionary to look up the words you don’t know). If still in doubt, discuss the phrases as a class.
1.
…President Obama landed in hot water …
2.
…patriotic chest-thumping
3.
… those who make them are treading a well-worn path.
4.
… they are simply the latest nation to sing a familiar old song.
5.
The United States talks a good game on human rights and international law …
6.
The US … has been all too willing to cozy up to dictators …
7.
Given all the high-fives American leaders have given themselves …
8.
…where progress in both areas trailed many other countries.
9.
… the United States has a divinely ordained mission to lead the rest of the world.
10.
But when a nation starts to think it enjoys the mandate of heaven…, then reality is likely to deliver a swift rebuke.
11.
International politics is a contact sport …
12.
Nationalism … inevitably … sugarcoats its (the country’s) less savory aspects.
1.
What American politicians and on what occasions referred to their country as the “last best hope of Earth”, the “leader of the free world, and the “indispensable nation”? What do these phrases imply? (Do at-home research to find answers to these questions.)
2.
What is the effect of the distorted self-perception on the US foreign policy?
3.
Is the idea of exceptionalism unique to the United States?
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4.
What arguments does the article provide to prove that the US does not behave better than other nations in terms of maintaining peace, promoting international law, and protecting human rights?
5.
What do Americans usually attribute the success of their nation to?
6.
Do you agree that American past success is to a great extent due to good luck?
7.
How does the author prove that the actual contribution of the US to world stability and global progress has been relatively modest?
8.
How does the article dispel the myth of the divine origin of American exceptionalism?
9.
What in reality makes the US a powerful nation?
10.
Does the article make a compelling case against American exceptionalism?
In a three-minute statement describe / express your opinion a) on the US role in the world b) the US foreign policy (use the text above and Reading 3) c) the current US – Russian relations (use the texts in Reading 5 and 6)
Ex.4. A) Find words in the text to match the definitions below, reproduce the context they are used in
B) Give their synonyms
C) Suggest their Russian equivalents
D) Use the words in sentences of your own
1.
so important or useful that it is impossible to manage without it
2.
existing in someone or something as a permanent and inseparable element, quality, or attribute
3.
correspondence in form, nature, or character
4.
to help a plan, idea, feeling, etc to develop
5.
to take up the cause, ideology, practice, method, of someone and use it as one's own
6.
to show to be false
7.
to shut or keep in; prevent from leaving a place because of imprisonment, illness, discipline, etc.
8.
extremely or hopelessly bad or severe
9.
provided or supplied or equipped with (especially as by inheritance or nature)
10.
accessible, liable, or subject to some influence, agency, etc.
11.
contrary to someone’ interests or welfare
12.
something of use, advantage, or value
13.
the process or state of irreversible breakdown or decline
14.
to spend wastefully or extravagantly
Ex.5. Continue the string of collocations, translate them. Use some of the word combinations in sentences of your own.
1.
to embrace the rule of law, _______________, _________________, ______________.
2.
valuable, _________________, __________________, _______________ commodity .
3.
to nurture liberty, __________________, ____________________, __________________.
4.
abysmal record, ___________________, _____________________, __________________.
5.
highly, ________________, _________________, _____________ susceptible.
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6.
adverse change , ___________________, ____________________, __________________.
7.
inherent ability, ____________________, _____________________, _________________.
8.
to squander a position, ________________, __________________, __________________.
Ex. 6. Fill in the gaps with the words from ex. 4 and ex. 5 or their derivatives.
1.
The head of the Teachers Federation says a full-scale strike scheduled for Tuesday is imminent because the government _______________ an opportunity to negotiate a contract on the weekend.
2.
It is very difficult to govern a country in the aftermath of a revolution and political talent is a scarce__________________ .
3.
As they age, baby boomers will be increasingly ________________ to ailments and conditions such as heart attack, stroke, and diabetes.
4.
In spite of his ______________ record, Reagan is considered one of the nation’s most popular presidents, which goes to show how powerful a toothpaste smile can be!
5.
Teaching human rights means both conveying ideas and information concerning human rights and _________________ the values and attitudes that lead to the support of those rights.
6.
Egalitarianism, which is destructive of moral freedom, is ________________ to political freedom.
7.
The policies promoted by the outgoing Commission had an _______________ impact on the working classes and grass roots sections of society.
8.
It is difficult to make sense of this information due to the ________________ bias in design, small sample sizes and outcomes of questionable relevance.
9.
Unable to return to their pre-war lives, many Albanians _______________ the Revolution as an opportunity to create a new life.
10.
Nepal, the recently declared Republic in the Himalayas, is a small country generously
____________________ with natural beauty and ethnic and cultural variety.
11.
Facts ________________ the statement issued by the United Nations that this year's flood is the worst in the living memory.
12.
Every day, in jails and prisons across the United States, young people under the age of 18 are held in solitary__________________.
13.
If a state accepts a treaty but does not adapt its national law in order to _______________ to the treaty or does not create a national law explicitly incorporating the treaty, then it violates international law.
14.
The underlying causes of the __________________ are multiple, and include an assorted domino effect that, when the last domino fell, took down financial giants and destroyed the working lives of many.
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
By Peter Katzenstein and Robert Keohane
October 20, 2006
Around the world, not just in the Middle East, when bad things happen there is a widespread tendency to blame America for its sins, either of commission or omission. When its Belgrade embassy is bombed, Chinese people believe it was a deliberate act of the United States government; terror plots by native British subjects are viewed as reflecting British support for
American policy; when AIDS devastates much of Africa, the United States is faulted for not doing enough to stop it.
These outbursts of anti-Americanism can be seen simply as a way of protesting American foreign policy. Is "anti-Americanism" really just a common phrase for such opposition, or does it go deeper? If anti-American expressions were simply ways to protest policies of the hegemonic power, only the label would be new. Before World War I, Americans reacted to British hegemony by opposing "John Bull." Yet there is a widespread feeling that anti-Americanism is more than simply opposition to what the United States does , but extends to opposition to what the United States is -- what it stands for. Critiques of the United States often extend far beyond its foreign policy: to its social and economic practices, including the public role of women; to its social policies, including the death penalty; and to its popular culture, including the flaunting of sex. Globalization is often seen as Americanization and resented as such. Furthermore, in France, which has had long-standing relations with the United States, anti-Americanism extends to the decades before the founding of the American republic.
Since we are interested in attitudes that go beyond negative opinions of American foreign policy, we define anti-Americanism as a psychological tendency to hold negative views of the United
States and of American society in general . Such negative views, which can be more or less intense, can be classified into four major types of anti-Americanism, based on the identities and values of the observers. From least to most intense, we designate these types of anti-
Americanism as liberal, social, sovereign-nationalist, and radical. Other forms of anti-
Americanism are more historically specific.
Liberal anti-Americanism . Liberals often criticize the United States bitterly for not living up to its own ideals. A country dedicated to democracy and self-determination supported dictatorships around the world during the Cold War and continued to do so in the Middle East after the Cold
War had ended. The war against terrorism has led the United States to begin supporting a variety of otherwise unattractive, even repugnant, regimes and political practices. On economic issues, the United States claims to favor freedom of trade but protects its own agriculture from competition stemming from developing countries and seeks extensive patent and copyright protection for American drug firms and owners of intellectual property. Such behavior opens the
United States to charges of hypocrisy from people who share its professed ideals but lament its actions.
Liberal anti-Americanism is prevalent in the liberal societies of advanced industrialized countries, especially those colonized or influenced by Great Britain. No liberal anti-American ever detonated a bomb against Americans or planned an attack on the United States. The potential impact of liberal anti-Americanism would be not to generate attacks on the United
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States but to reduce support for American policy. The more the United States is seen as a selfinterested power parading under the banners of democracy and human rights rather than as a true proponent of those values, the less willing other liberals may be to defend it with words or deeds.
Since liberal anti-Americanism feeds on perceptions of hypocrisy, a less hypocritical set of
United States policies could presumably reduce it. Hypocrisy, however, is inherent in the situation of a superpower that professes universalistic ideals. It afflicted the Soviet Union even more than the United States. Furthermore, a prominent feature of pluralist democracy is that its leaders find it necessary to claim that they are acting consistently with democratic ideals while they have to respond to groups seeking to pursue their own self-interests, usually narrowly defined. When the interests of politically strong groups imply policies that do not reflect democratic ideals, the ideals are typically compromised. Hypocrisy routinely results. It is criticized not only in liberal but also in nonliberal states: for instance, Chinese public discourse overwhelmingly associates the United States with adherence to a double standard in its foreign policy in general and in its conduct of the war on terror specifically.
Social anti-Americanism . Since democracy comes in many stripes, we are wrong to mistake the
American tree for the democratic forest. Many democratic societies do not share the peculiar combination of respect for individual liberty, reliance on personal responsibility, and distrust of government characteristic of the United States. People in other democratic societies may therefore react negatively to America's political institutions and its social and political arrangements that rely heavily on market processes. They favor deeper state involvement in social programs than is politically feasible or socially acceptable in the United States. Social democratic welfare states in Scandinavia, Christian democratic welfare states on the European continent, and developmental industrial states in Asia, such as Japan, are prime examples of democracies whose institutions and practices contrast in many ways with those of the United
States.
Social anti-Americanism is based on value conflicts that reflect relevant differences in many spheres of life that are touching on "life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness." The injustice embedded in American policies that favor the rich over the poor is often decried. The sting is different here than for liberals who resent American hypocrisy. Genuine value conflicts exist on issues such as the death penalty, the desirability of generous social protections, preference for multilateral approaches over unilateral ones, and the sanctity of international treaties. Still, these value conflicts are smaller than those with radical anti-Americanism, since social anti-
Americanism shares in core American values.
Sovereign-nationalist anti-Americanism . A third form of anti-Americanism focuses not on correcting domestic market outcomes but on political power. Sovereign nationalists focus on two values: the importance of not losing control over the terms by which polities are inserted in world politics and the inherent importance and value of collective national identities. These identities often embody values that are at odds with America's. State sovereignty thus becomes a shield against unwanted intrusions from America.
The emphasis placed by different sovereign nationalists can vary in three ways. First, it can be on nationalism : on collective national identities that offer a source of positive identification.
National identity is one of the most important political values in contemporary world politics, and there is little evidence suggesting that this is about to change. Second, sovereign nationalists can emphasize sovereignty . In the many parts of Asia, the Middle East, and Africa where state sovereignty came only after hard-fought wars of national liberation, sovereignty is a muchcherished good that is to be defended. Anti-Americanism rooted in sovereignty is less common
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in Europe than in other parts of the world for one simple reason: European politics over the past half-century has been devoted to a common project -- the partial pooling of sovereignty in an emerging European polity. A third variant of sovereign-nationalist anti-Americanism appears where people see their states as potential great powers . Such societies may define their own situations partly in opposition to dominant states.
Sovereign-nationalist anti-Americanism resonates well in polities that have strong state traditions. Encroachments on state sovereignty are particularly resented when the state has the capacity and a tradition of directing domestic affairs. This is true in particular of the states of
East Asia. The issues of "respect" and saving "face" in international politics can make anti-
Americanism especially virulent, since they stir nationalist passions in a way that social anti-
Americanism rarely does.
China is particularly interesting for this category, since all three elements of sovereignnationalist anti-Americanism are present there. The Chinese elites and public are highly nationalistic and very sensitive to threats to Chinese sovereignty. Furthermore, China is already a great power and has aspirations to become more powerful. Yet it is still weaker than the United
States. Hence, the superior military capacity of the United States and its expressed willingness to use that capacity (for instance, against an attack by China on Taiwan) create latent anti-
Americanism.
Radical anti-Americanism . We characterize a fourth form of anti-Americanism as radical. It is built around the belief that America's identity, as reflected in the internal economic and political power relations and institutional practices of the United States, ensures that its actions will be hostile to the furtherance of good values, practices, and institutions elsewhere in the world. For progress toward a better world to take place, the American economy and society will have to be transformed, either from within or from without.
Radical anti-Americanism was characteristic of Marxist-Leninist states such as the Soviet Union until its last few years and is still defining Cuba and North Korea today. When Marxist revolutionary zeal was great, radical anti-Americanism was associated with violent revolution against U.S.-sponsored regimes, if not the United States itself. Its Marxist-Leninist adherents are now so weak, however, that it is mostly confined to the realm of rhetoric.
The most extreme form of contemporary radical anti-Americanism holds that Western values are so abhorrent that people holding them should be destroyed. The United States is the leading state of the West and therefore the central source of evil. This perceived evil may take various forms, from equality for women, to public displays of the human body, to belief in the superiority of
Christianity. For those holding extreme versions of Occidentalist ideas, the central conclusion is that the West, and the United States in particular, are so incorrigibly bad that they must be destroyed. And since the people who live in these societies have renounced the path of righteousness and truth, they must be attacked and exterminated.
Religiously inspired and secular radical anti-Americanism argue for the weakening, destruction, or transformation of the political and economic institutions of the United States. The distinctive mark of both strands of anti-Americanism is the demand for revolutionary changes in the nature of American society.
It should be clear that these four different types of anti-Americanism are not simply variants of the same schema, emotions, or set of norms with only slight variations at the margin. On the contrary, adherents of different types of anti-Americanism can express antithetical attitudes.
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Radical Muslims oppose a popular culture that commercializes sex and portrays women as liberated from the control of men and are also critical of secular liberal values. Social and
Christian democratic Europeans, by contrast, may love American popular culture but criticize the
United States for the death penalty and for not living up to secular values they share with liberals. Liberal anti-Americanism exists because its proponents regard the United States as failing to live up to its professed values -- which are entirely opposed to those of religious radicals and are largely embraced by liberals. Secular radical anti-Americans may oppose the
American embrace of capitalism but may accept scientific rationalism, gender egalitarianism, and secularism -- as Marxists have done. Anti-Americanism can be fostered by Islamic fundamentalism, idealistic liberalism, or Marxism. And it can be embraced by people who, not accepting any of these sets of beliefs, fear the practices or deplore the policies of the United
States.

The traditional cultural values of American society are degenerating under the influences of corporate politics, the commercialization of culture and the impact of mass media. Society is awakening from its fascination with television entertainment to find itself stripped of tradition, controlled by an oppressive power structure and bound to the credit obligations of a defunct
American dream.
For the public at large, the integrating and transformative experiences of culture have been replaced by the collective viewing experience and by participation in consumer trends. The
American public has been inundated by an unending parade of commodities and fabricated television spectacles that keeps it preoccupied with the ideals and values of consumerism.
Consumerism is the myth that the individual will be gratified and integrated by consuming. The public fetishistically substitutes consumer ideals for the lost acculturating experiences of art, religion and family. The consumer sublimates the desire for cultural fulfillment to the rewards of buying and owning commodities. While consumerism offers the tangible goal of owning a product, it lacks the fulfillment of other cultural mythologies. Consumerism offers only short term ego-gratification for those who can afford the luxury and frustration for those who cannot.
The egocentricity of American society made it an easy target for the transition to a consumer society. As deceptive advertising and academic nihilism gutted culture of its subjectively realized values, the public was easily swayed onto the path of consumerism. In the midst of a major identity crisis, will America realize the lack of morality and humanitarianism in a world based on media image and the transient satisfaction of ownership? The reduction of cultural values to economic worth has produced a situation in our 'enlightened' society where product availability becomes ethical justification for political oppression.
The hallowed dollar is a cheap substitute for cultural values lost to greed and ambivalence in post-modern America. Economic worth has displaced traditional cultural values defining selfworth. Self-worth is gauged by buying power. The acts of buying and owning reinforce selfworth within consumer society. You can see it in the haughty and demanding attitude of the
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consumer as he stands before the cashier. No longer does the purchase have to be justified by purpose.
Mass media perpetuates the myth of consumerism as a priority of the New Capitalism. As
America settles into its nightly routine of television viewing, corporate profiteers are quick to substitute material luxury and consumer gratification for the fading spirit. Media advertising sells an image -- an empty shell. Corporate America placates its flaccid public with despiriting pastiche. There is only fraudulent illusion. Who cares as long as it looks good?
In its duplicitous plot to throttle the public, corporate policy assumes only the self-interested exploitation of the consumer market and environmental resources. Corporate priorities and the business ethic are not intrinsically humanitarian or ecologically sensitive. The humanitarian ethic associated with small business is lost. The consumer is no longer courted by the competition of small businesses. The small business has been crowded out by the corporate capitalist to insure less competition and greater profit. Big business is too often the enemy of the people.
In corporate (monopolistic) capitalism the consumer is a target -- he is acted upon. Selection is reduced, not to what the public wants, but to what it will accept at a greater profit for the stockholder. Our choices and freedoms are limited by corporate policy. As we become acclimated to life around the television set, collectively striving for a media-produced image, our choices are made for us. Choice is reduced to brand name. We sacrifice self-knowledge for consumerism. Consumerism, like communism and fascism, is a secular religion restricting freedom of choice.
Beneath its smug persona lies an insecure America striving to fill an image projected in media advertising. Self-awareness and self-worth have been distorted. We are what we wear. Who we are merges with roles and images portrayed in the media. Ever so subtly we, Americans, are losing something we have always been proud of - our ability to act independently.

http://ideas.time.com/2013/09/12/the-confusing-state-of-u-s-russiarelations/
Behind Putin's latest move, and our on-again, off-again alliance
By Joshua A. Tucker Sept. 12, 2013
It is hard to imagine a more interesting—and confusing—time to take stock of modern U.S.-
Russian relations. My Twitter feed is currently ablaze with reports of the possibility that the US will adopt the Russia plan for solving the current Syria crisis. At the same time, Vladimir
Putin has just critiqued President Obama on the op-ed page of The New York Times. These seemingly unexpected and contradictory developments reflect the fact that there are two
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fundamental realities shaping the bilateral relationship today today: Russian domestic politics and a series of shared and conflicting international interests of both nations.
First, the recent direction of Vladimir Putin’s Kremlin in terms of the domestic political sphere is anathema to most of the values that the United States professes to support in its friends and allies: a free press, fair and competitive elections, civil rights for minorities, an independent judiciary, and so on. It seems that hardly more than a few weeks can go by without something happening in Russia that reminds American policymakers of how different the two regimes can be. The recent flight from the country of the distinguished economist Sergei Guriev and the trial, conviction, and release of recent Moscow mayoral candidate and opposition leader Alexander Navalny are but two examples, as are recent laws against “homosexual propaganda.” This is not to say that the United States does not cooperate with foreign regimes that have less than stellar democratic records. At the same time, though, the post-Cold War history of U.S.-Russian relations has been filled repeatedly with the promise of Russia becoming
“more democratic” and of potential “resets.” To the extent that this promise isn’t fulfilled, the relationship (rightly or wrongly) suffers.
Then there is Vladimir Putin’s standing in his own country. Putin has enjoyed periods of time, especially in the first decade of his presidency, when he was a genuinely popular leader. He gave
Russians a flourishing economy, rising oil prices that helped the country escape from Western loans and IMF bailouts, and much needed stability after the Yeltsin years. Today, however, Putin is less popular. Economic growth has slowed, and the Kremlin has done little to diversify their economy beyond extractive industries. The perception of corruption among the ruling elite is widespread. The growing middle class in Russia has become disillusioned with the impunity of its self-enriching leaders, and the newest generation lacks the memory of why Putin was embraced in the first place.
All of these factors have added up to a situation where Putin II needs to reach farther to affirm his legitimacy than Putin I ever did. And one way Putin has been doing this, borrowing from a familiar theme in Russian political rhetoric that reached its height during the Cold War years, is by casting himself as a defender of Russian values against Western—particularly American— encroachment. It’s a rational strategy, but Putin also seems to take a certain glee in needling his
U.S. “partners,” as evidenced most recently by his reactions to the Edward Snowden affair and his NY Times op-ed. Scapegoating the West is an easy way out in difficult times, as evidenced by Putin’s rush to denounce protesters who took to the streets of Moscow following claims of fraud in the 2011 Russian parliamentary elections as being instruments of “foreign agents”. And as long as Putin and his surrounding ruling elite are running the show in Russia, U.S.-Russian relations are going to face an uphill struggle.
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At the same time, though, it is important to note that the United States and Russia share several common goals in the international sphere, chief among them the containment of radical and fundamentalist Islamic movements as well as failed states where they thrive, which both nations perceive as representing national security threats. While the countries may not agree on the correct course of action (read: supporting different sides in the Syrian conflict), it doesn’t mean that they don’t see where it could be beneficial to work in tandem (read: trying to avoid Syria turning into a failed state).
But here, too, the United States and Russia run into fundamental differences in the way they view the global arena that prevent them from becoming true partners. On the one hand,
Washington – especially the current administration’s foreign policy team – has a strong belief in the legitimacy of intervention in order to prevent humanitarian crises. The Kremlin, on the other hand, is much more invested in protecting traditional notions of sovereignty, where domestic rulers are to be given deference within their own borders. Moreover, as Daniel Treisman recently pointed out at The Monkey Cage blog, Putin “sees past episodes of U.S.-sponsored regime change—in Iraq, Egypt, and Libya—as having replaced stable, albeit sometimes unattractive, dictatorships with dangerous chaos.”
So where does this leave the state of U.S.-Russian relations? At least for the duration of the
Putin years (which could be a while), it’s probably prudent to expect more of the same: repeated attempts by Putin to vilify the United States in the international arena for the purpose of domestic consumption without dramatically changing its actual behavior towards the United
States, and a reluctance on the part of the United States to trust Russia in most matters with occasional “surprising” moments of agreement in the international sphere when the interests of both countries manage to align.
So, we’re neither heading back to the Cold War, nor to some “reset” feel-good era of partnership.
Instead, the recent back and forth on Syria will likely be an example of what will be at best wary, opportunistic collaboration in the years to come.
Joshua A. Tucker is a Professor of Politics at New York University, a National Security Fellow at the Truman National Security Project, and a co-author of the The Monkey Cage, a politics and policy blog. This piece was written for The Weekly Wonk.
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http://www.themoscowtimes.com/opinion/article/could-is-bring-russia-and-the-ustogether/506711.html
By Roland Dannreuther
Sep. 09 2014
The start of a fragile cease-fire in Ukraine opens up the potential for some limitation of the dangerous escalation in tensions between Russia and the West. Yet even as U.S. President
Barack Obama is directly accusing Russia of intervention in support of the separatists in eastern
Ukraine, the meteoric rise of the Islamic State (IS) in the Middle East presents a serious threat to both countries.
The U.S. and Russia have been equally committed and determined to counter militant Islamist terrorism; both have been directly threatened by the group; both have an interest in a sovereign and unified Iraq; and there are growing voices in Washington suggesting that an accommodation with the Syrian regime of Bashar Assad will be needed if IS is to be repelled.
Unsurprisingly, Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov has enthusiastically supported any potential favorable U.S. shift toward the Syrian regime.
Might Russia again play the role of interlocutor and mediator for Washington in the Middle
East? The resonance here is with the deal struck by Russia in September last year over the elimination of Syria's chemical weapons stock.
The political context then in terms of U.S.-Russian relations had some similarities to the current situation. U.S.-Russian relations were similarly at a low ebb as there was a fundamental difference of opinion about what should be done about the Assad regime.
The U.S. demanded Assad's unconditional removal, while Russia insisted that this could not be a pre-condition for a resolution of the crisis. Both countries blamed the other for the intensity and bloodshed of the Syrian civil war. Russia argued that U.S. policy had only radicalized the opposition, breeding new extremist Islamist groups. The U.S. blamed Russia for undermining the moderate claims of the opposition through its unbending support for the criminal Syrian regime.
However, in the end, a convergence of interests between Russia and the U.S. emerged. As
Obama faced the prospect of being compelled to intervene militarily — an extremely unattractive prospect — Russia offered a way out; securing the commitment of the Syrian regime to dismantle all of its chemical weapons.
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Having engineered this diplomatic coup, Russia then made sure it was true to its word and, a year later, almost all of Syria's chemical weapons have been destroyed. The Russian leadership was also careful not to use this diplomatic gain to 'humiliate' the U.S. This restraint meant that there was a chance that this could have been the foundation for a pragmatic improvement in relations between the two countries.
The crisis in Ukraine extinguished any such hopes. Hawks on both sides have heralded a return to Cold War confrontation and zero-sum competition. Both countries have seen in Ukraine the crossing of 'red lines' that cannot be accepted.
The red line for Russia was the move toward the U.S. and the imposition of a pro-Western
'democracy' in a country directly neighboring Russia. For the U.S., the Russian annexation of Crimea undermined the post-Cold War European agreement to respect the new European territorial boundaries.
The question is, thus, whether the current state of U.S.-Russian relations is at such a depressed and destructive level that no real cooperation is possible, even in other less politically contested regions of the world. Clearly, the answer to this question depends significantly on what happens in Ukraine.
The resolve to impose a cease-fire on the pro-Russian rebels in Ukraine suggests that President
Vladimir Putin might not see escalation as the only way to resolve the crisis in Ukraine in Russia's favor. The historic record of Putin's period at the apex of Russian power has been a pattern of oscillation between an ambition for improving relations with the West and a subsequent disillusionment and deterioration in such relations, leading again to an attempted renewal or 'resetting' of those relations.
It cannot be excluded that the cycles might move again and U.S.-Russian relations will start to be mended by the cease-fire in Ukraine.
In this scenario, the Middle East actually offers many areas for mutual cooperation. It is not like the Cold War period when the U.S. and Soviet Union ritualistically supported different camps in the region.
Nowadays, the U.S. and Russia have a common strategic interest in combatting international terrorism, the reason being that this represents a serious threats to the citizens of both countries, as seen in the recent threats from IS to Russia following those to the U.S.
While the US suffered from the terrorist attacks of 9/11, Russia has had to endure numerous terrorist attacks, mainly emanating from the Islamist insurgency in the North Caucasus. For both countries, there is a shared sense of the gravity of the threat of international terrorism to their core national interests.
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For these reasons, the U.S. and Russia view IS as a common enemy. As the apocalyptic language emanating out of Washington demonstrates, the U.S. actually views the threat from IS as strategically more important than that of Ukraine in the sense that direct national interests are involved.
For the American public, Ukraine appears as an obscure conflict in a distant land, while the execution of American journalist James Foley by IS has a shocking immediacy. If the conflict in Iraq and Syria escalates, and the U.S. becomes more involved, it might very well be that the Ukrainian conflict becomes marginalized. And any Russian support in the battle against IS, undoubtedly of a more indirect nature, would be welcomed by Washington.
If one looks at the Middle East more broadly, Russian and U.S. interests are actually closer than often suggested. Although there has been continued disagreement about Iran, both Russia and the
U.S. are committed to seeing that Iran does not obtain nuclear weapons and the U.S. posture toward Iran has moved closer to that of Russia.
With the escalation of the crisis in Iraq, Russia can potentially play an important role in facilitating the coordination between Iran, the Iraqi government and Syria, which will be critical if IS is to be defeated.
Russia is also no longer the unconditional supporter for radical forces in the Middle East.
Russia's major economic partners in the region are Turkey and Israel, and the economic and cultural links between Russia and Israel have never been stronger.
In fact, it could be argued that it is Russia which is the more conservative force supporting the regional status quo, while it is the U.S. which is the more radical actor seeking to overturn the regional order. Obama's much more realist and non-interventionist convictions actually represent a shift toward the Russian position.
There is, therefore, considerable potential for Russia and the U.S. to work together in the Middle
East. However, this is clearly conditional on no further escalation in Ukraine. In that context, the likelihood is for conflict and confrontation to extend to other parts of the world, including the Middle East, even when in practice there is such mutual interest for cooperation.
Roland Dannreuther is professor of International Relations at the University of Westminster, London.
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Do not alter the word(s) given . e.g. I didn’t tell her the bad news. I didn’t want to upset her. (
I didn’t tell her the bad news
.
1.
This music reminds me of my childhood. (
)
This music ______________________ my childhood.
2.
The woman screamed so loudly that she was heard by everyone. (
)
So _______________________________ that she was heard by everyone.
3.
I’d prefer him to drive us there. (
)
I ________________________________________ us there.
4.
We didn’t think she would be turned down for the part. (
)
Little ___________________________ she would be turned down for the part.
5.
As far as I know it was not Brenda who broke the secret access code.
(
)
To _______________________, it was not Brenda who broke the secret access
code.
6.
I did not mean to hurt your feelings. (
)
I _________________________________________ your feelings.
7.
Harry was about to burst into tears when he heard the news. (
)
Harry __________________________________ when he heard the news.
8.
Mrs Parkinson is proud of her award-winning roses. (
)
Mrs Parkinson ____________________________ her award-winning roses.
9.
I’m sure she’s been to Budapest before. (
)
She ____________________________ to Budapest before.
10.
Everybody tells me that I should stop eating so much chocolate. (
)
Everybody tells me that I should ________________________ chocolate.
11.
I’m really sorry but this is the best I can do. (
)
I’m really sorry but I ____________________________ than this.
12.
They should learn to take on more responsibility. (
)
It’s ________________________________on more responsibility.
13.
You can go to the party, but be home by midnight. (
)
As _____________________________ by midnight, you can go to the party.
14.
They believe the suspect is hiding somewhere across the border. (
)
The suspect _____________________________ somewhere across the border.
15.
She is scared to be alone in the house at night. (
)
She ____________________________________in the house at night.
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