The Foundations of
Medieval Christianity
Ecumenical Councils
Imperial Structure: Tetrarchy

Augustus of the East:
Diocletian (285-305)
Diocletian
– Ceasar of the East:
Galerius (293-311)

Augustus of the West:
Maximian (292-305)
– Ceasar of the West:
Constantinus (293306)
Galerius
Divisions of the Roman Empire under
Diocletian
Diocletian divided the empire into 4 prefectures and 17 dioceses.
Diocletian Persecution
Persecutes Christians for the sake of state unity.
 The persecution continued in the East until 311.
 Four Stages:

– All military personnel must sacrifice to the gods (300)
– All churches to be destroyed and Scriptures burned
(303)
– All clergy arrested (303)
– All citizens to offer sacrifices (304)
Constantine (306-337)




Born in Dacia (274),
mother was Christian but
father pagan.
Served under Galerius in
303.
Father (Constantinus)
died in Britain in 306 and
the army elected
Constantine as his
replacement.
Galerius died in 311 and
the struggle for imperial
power in the ensued.
“Conversion” of Constantine
Constantine crossed the Alps and moved
toward Rome in 312 for the Battle of
Milvian Bridge near Rome against
Maxentius.
 Vision: cross above the sun with the
words “by this sign you will conquer” (in
hoc signo vinces)
 Dream: Christ commanded him to draw
the Chi-Ro on the shields of his soldiers.

Friend of Christianity



After victory, he was convinced Christ was a real power
and decided to show the “peace of Christ.”
He declared Christianity a legal religion with the Edict of
Milan (313) and by 323 had united the Empire under one
Emperor.
Favored Christianity
–
–
–
–
–
–
Built Churches
Makes Sunday a day of worship
Initiates Christmas as festival
Ordered new copies of the Bible
Gave bishops a rank equal to Senators
Excluded churches and clergy from
taxation
New Capital

During the Tetrarchy of 305, the four capitals were Trier, Milan,
Thessaloniki, and Nicomedia.

In 330, Constantine established his new capital in the NW corner of
Asia Minor and called it Constantinople (at Byzantium). Indeed, he
left Rome in 324 never to return.

It was built on seven hills (like Rome) with a forum, hippodrome,
Senate and its people received subsidized grain and paid no taxes.
Unlike Rome, it was a Christian capital with few traces of paganism.

He also began the construction of a church in the city which would
become known as the Hagia Sophia. 2/3 of the world’s wealth was
said to be in Constantinople (originally name “New Rome”).
Constantinople
Rome and Christianity

Edict of Milan (312): Christianity is tolerated.

Constantine presided over the first Christian Ecumenical Council at
Nicea (325).

Successive emperors were sometimes Arian (such as Constantine’s
son Constantius), sometimes Trinitarians. They often used violence
to coerce unity.

The Emperors are now all Christian, except one (Julian the
Apostate, 361-63).

Theodosius I (Trinitarian) made Christianity the compulsory religion
of state employees in 389, outlawed paganism in 391, and declared
Christianity the only legal religion in 395.
Rome and the Church
The church (especially the clergy, specifically the
bishops) grew in wealth and power due to the
privileges of the state.
 The influx of “pagans” into the church created
new problems—moving from 10% of the
population in 300 to probably 60% of the
population in 400.
 Even the Emperor Theodosius was forced to do
“public penance” for his massacre 1000s in
Thessalonica in 389.

Rome’s New Problem (360-390s)
The “Barbarian” tribes (the Germanic
tribes), particularly the Goths, admired the
Romans.
 They sought alliances (protection from the
Huns), trade and participation in Roman
civilization.
 The Romans needed alliances to defeat
the Huns who were invading across
Hungary, Northern Italy and into Gaul.

Rome and the Goths
Running from the Huns, the Goths sought
a Roman alliance in 360s.
 Rome regarded them as a buffer between
themselves and the Huns, but the Romans
exploited and enslaved them.
 At the battle of Adrianpole (379), the
Emperor Valens was killed and the Goths
overran the Empire.

Battle of Adrianople
Theodosius, Last Unified Emperor
(379-391)




After the death of Valens
(378), Theodosius made
peace with the Goths.
After Theodosius’ death
in 395, the empire was
divided between east and
west.
Honorius in the West
(395-423) and Arcadius
(395-408) in the East.
Honorius moved the
Western capital to
Ravenna in 401.
The Emperor Honorius at his court in Ravenna
Germanic Invasions
The Sack of Rome (410)
Honorius drove the
Goths out of Greece
twice.
 However, he could not
prevent Alaric of the
Goths from moving
through Italy and
sacking Rome in 410
(the first time in 800
years).

Leo the Great of Rome
Leo was the Bishop of Rome during the time of
many Germanic incursions (440-461).
 He appropriated the title of “Pontifex Maximus”
and claimed to be the ecumenical bishop of the
church. Claimed to be the successor of Peter—
the ruler of the “catholic church.”
 He met with Attila the Hun and persuaded him
to forego sacking Rome (through a bribe).
 With the loss of imperial power in Italy,
especially Rome, Leo and subsequent Bishops of
Rome became the most powerful leaders in the
West.

Galla Placidia (Honorius’ sister) guided the West to 450
Aided by capable Roman general Aetius
He won important victories over Visigoths
He and Theodoric of Constantinople turned back Attila
the Hun at Chalons in 451
Attila the Hun
“The Scourge of Europe”
Coin of Aetius
Galla Placidia
The Tomb of Galla
Placidia at Ravenna
The Fall of the Roman West

The Western empire went through a
succession of generals as emperors.
They all failed to stop the incursions.

Odovacar, a Goth, took over the remains
of the Western empire in Italy in 476 from
the 12-year old emperor, Romulus
Augustulus.
Europe Under the Germanic Tribes
Justinian (527-565)



Sought to re-establish the
Roman Empire—for both
imperial and theological
reasons.
Reconquered parts of
Spain (Visigoths), Africa
(Vandals) and Italy
(Ostrogoths) from the
“Barbaric” kingdoms.
Through diplomacy and
defense (600 forts in the
Balkans), the eastern
empire reached the
zenith of its greatness.
Empire Renewed
Justinian restored the Empire to the practical
dimensions of Theodosius I in 395 except for
much of Spain and France. As such, he was the
last “Roman Emperor” of the united Empire.
Justinian, State and Church

Justinian asserted the right of Emperor to determine church
theology and force acceptance. He was as close an example
of Caesaropapism as we have in history. Ultimately, it was
competitive but usually more like joint spheres of influence in
which both have influence in the other’s concern. The
Emperor (autocrator), however, represented Christ
(pantocrator).

Justinian codified and reformed the tax and legal codes of the
Empire, called “Justinian Code”. These formed the basis of
future law reform in the West (12th century). They were
based on previous Roman jurisprudence, imperial edicts, and
“Institutes” (a handbook for the use of law students).

He closed the schools of Plato and Aristotle in Athens in 529
which signaled the end of Paganism and end of the ancient
world.
Mosaic in St. Vitale in Ravenna, which Justinian built
Map of Post-Justinian Empire, ca. 700
The Arian Controversy (321-325)

Arius – affirmed there was a time when the Logos did
not exist

Alexander – the bishop of Alexandria who deposed Arius
for his views.

Athanasius – the supporter and major theological
defender of Alexander.

Eusebius of Nicomedia – the bishop who supported Arius
and was a councilor of Emperor Constantine.
Divided Christianity




Arians
Leader: Arius
Taught that there was a
time when the Son did
not exist.
Sought to preserve the
monarchy of the Father
who alone is true God.
Holy Spirit is a power,
energy rather than a
person.




Trinitarians
Leader: Athanasius
Taught that the Son was
co-eternal with the
Father.
Sought to preserve the
confession that Jesus is
God.
The Holy Spirit is coeternal with the Father
and Son as a person.
The Council of Nicea (325)
Called and overseen by Constantine in order to
preserve unity within the church (and thus his
Empire).
 About 250 of the 1800 bishops in the Empire
attended.
 All but two signed the resultant “creed” though
some were hesitant.
 Constantine himself insisted on the language of
homoousia (“same substance”) rather than
homoiousia (“like substance”).

Council of Nicea, 325 AD
We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, maker of all things visible
and invisible; and in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the
only-begotten of his Father, of the substance of the Father, God of
God, Light of Light, very God of very God, begotten , not made,
being of one substance (homoousia) with the Father. By whom all
things were made, both which be in heaven and in earth. Who for
us men and for our salvation came down from heaven and was
incarnate and was made man. He suffered and the third day he rose
again, and ascended into heaven. And he shall come again to judge
both the quick and the dead. And in the Holy Ghost. And whosoever
shall say that there was a time when the Son of God was not, or
that before he was begotten he was not, or that he was made of
things that were not, or that he is of a different substance or
essence from the Father or that he is a creature, or subject to
change or conversion--all that so say, the Catholic and Apostolic
Church anathematizes them.
Nicea and the Roman Bishop
The Council organized the structure of the
church in parallel with the Empire using
the same designations and territorial
outlines.
 The Council recognized four chief bishops:
Jerusalem, Antioch, Alexandria and Rome.
 The Bishop of Rome was recognized as
first among equals.

The Ascendancy of Arianism

After Constantine was persuaded to accept an ambiguous statement from
Arius, Athanasius was exiled or went into hiding five times over the next
forty years.

Constantius became the sole ruler of the Empire in 353 and supported
Arianism. Niceans were persecuted.

Even some Western bishops bowed to the will of Constantinus who declared
“my will is the canon for you.” Pope Liberius and others were exiled, and
Athanasius stood alone against the “Arian world” (having gone into hiding in
the deserts of Egypt).

In response, some bishops met in council at Constantinople in 360 and
declared that the “Son is like the Father” (homoousia).

During the reign of Julian the Apostate (361-363), without imperial pressure
the church began to gravitate more toward the Nicean position once again.
Triumph of Nicea

Valentian became emperor in 363 over the West and appointed his
brother Valens (363-378) emperor over the East.

This was the time of the Cappodocian Fathers: Basil the Great,
Gregory the Theologian, and Gregory of Nyssa.

Though Valens supported the Arian party, the Cappodocians
persuaded the church to reaffirm the Nicean Creed.

When Theodosius became Emperor in 379, he reaffirmed the Nicean
creed and called the Council of Constantinople of 381. This
reaffirmed Nicea.
Rome, Arianism and the East

Pope Julius of Rome in 340 supported the
Nicene creed and sided with Athanasius. He
called for a council in Rome to decide the
question. Eastern bishops rejected the call.

Julius responded: “Do you not know that the
custom is that we should be written to first, and
that judgment is rendered here? What I write
you and what I say we received from the
blessed Apostle Peter.”
Council of Constantinople, 381
And in the Holy Ghost, the Lord and Giverof-Life, who proceeds from the Father,
who with the Father and the Son together
is worshipped and glorified, who spoke by
the prophets. And in one, holy, Catholic
and Apostolic Church. We acknowledge
one Baptism for the remission of sins, and
we look for the resurrection of the dead
and the life of the world to come. Amen.
Ecclesial Jurisdiction

Canon #3: “The Bishop of Constantinople, however,
shall have the prerogative of honor after the Bishop of
Rome; because Constantinople is New Rome.

Leo I and papal legates at the later council of Chalcedon
(451) rejected the reordering of the Nicean canon. Pope
Damascus I was not invited to Constantinople for the
council in 381.

The Eastern Church has always recognized the Bishop of
Rome as “first among equals” but does not recognize the
jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome in its own jurisdiction.
Nestorian Controversy (428-431)

Nestorius, Bishop of Constantinople, refused to call Mary
by the title of theotokos (“Mother of God”).

Cyril, Bishop of Alexandria, argued that since Christ is
one person united to God and humanity Mary is the
“bearer of God”.

Rome sided with Cyril.

Nestorius persuaded Theodosius II to call an ecumenical
council in Ephesus. The Council divided into two parties:
Cyril vs. Nestorius.
Council of Ephesus (431)

1: If anyone will not confess that the Emmanuel is very God, and
that therefore the Holy Virgin is the Mother of God, inasmuch as in
the flesh she bore the Word of God made flesh (as it is written, "The
Word was made flesh"): let him be anathema.

2: If anyone shall not confess that the Word of God the Father is
united hypostatically to flesh, and that with that flesh of his own, he
is one only Christ both God and man at the same time: let him be
anathema.

11: Whosoever shall not confess that the flesh of the Lord gives life
and that it pertains to the Word of God the Father as his very own,
but shall pretend that it belongs to another person who is united to
him [i.e., the Word] only according to honor, and who has served as
a dwelling for the divinity; and shall not rather confess, as we say,
that that flesh gives life because it is that of the Word who gives life
to all: let him be anathema.
Harmony Restored

Problem: Cyril had affirmed “one nature
of God the Word Incarnate.” To John of
Antioch this seemed to confuse the divine
and human natures.

In 432 representatives from Antioch met
with Cyril in Alexandria. They emerged
with a “formula of union” (433).
Formula of Union (433)
We confess, then, our lord Jesus Christ, the only begotten Son of
God perfect God and perfect man of a rational soul and a body,
begotten before all ages from the Father in his godhead, the same
in the last days, for us and for our salvation, born of Mary the virgin,
according to his humanity, one and the same consubstantial with
the Father in godhead and consubstantial with us in humanity, for a
union of two natures took place. Therefore we confess one Christ,
one Son, one Lord. According to this understanding of the
unconfused union, we confess the holy virgin to be the mother of
God because God the Word took flesh and became man and from
his very conception united to himself the temple he took from her.
As to the evangelical and apostolic expressions about the Lord, we
know that theologians treat some in common as of one person and
distinguish others as of two natures, and interpret the god-befitting
ones in connection with the godhead of Christ and the lowly ones
with his humanity.
Monophysite Controversy (433-451)
Cyril’s acceptance of the “Formula of Union” upset some
in Alexandria who preferred the “one nature” (mia
physis) formula.
 Upon Cyril’s death, this party emerged in rebellion
against the “Formula of Union” led by Bishop Dioscurus.
 Flavian, Bishop of Constantinople, condemned Eutyches
(a monophysite) and was supported by Pope Leo I of
Rome who wrote a letter (Tome) against monophysitism.
 Theodosius called a council in Ephesus (“robber synod”)
in 449 which involved violent action by monks against
Flavian (who was beaten, deposed and exiled).
 Emperor Marcian called another council in 451 at the
request of Leo I in Chalcedon near Constantinople. The
Council decided against monophysitism.

Council of Chalcedon (451)
Following the holy Fathers we teach with one voice that the Son and our
Lord Jesus Christ is to be confessed as one and the same, that he is perfect
in Godhead and perfect in manhood, very God and very man, of a
reasonable soul and body consisting, consubstantial with the Father as
touching his Godhead, and consubstantial with us as touching his manhood;
made in all things like unto us, sin only excepted; begotten of his Father
before the worlds according to his Godhead; but in these last days for us
men and for our salvation born of the Virgin Mary, the Mother of God
according to his manhood. This one and the same Jesus Christ, the onlybegotten Son must be confessed to be in two natures, unconfusedly,
immutably, indivisibly, inseparably united, and that without the distinction of
natures being taken away by such union, but rather the peculiar property of
each nature being preserved and being united in one Person and
subsistence, not separated or divided into two persons, but one and the
same Son and only-begotten, God the Word, our Lord Jesus Christ, as the
Prophets of old time have spoken concerning him, and as the Lord Jesus
Christ hath taught us, and as the Creed of the Fathers hath delivered to us.
Leo’s Authority
Leo I (the Great) had written a letter to the
council of Ephesus (449) declaring his
Christological views.
 According to tradition, after Leo’s letter had
been read to Chalcedon, the 630 bishops and 4
papal legates present exclaimed unanimously,
"What Leo believes we all believe, anathema to
him who believes anything else. Peter has
spoken through the mouth of Leo."
 His “Tome” (letter) was included as part of the
official documents of Chalcedon.

Constantinople and Chalcedon

The Council (451) recognized Constantinople as
a patriarchate (along with Rome, Alexandria,
Antioch and Jerusalem).

Its jurisdiction include Asia Minor, Pontus, Thrace
and all northern unconverted regions (ultimately
to include Russia).

It was also recognized as “first among equals” in
the east and given appellate authority from the
other sees.
Division

Chalcedon did not settle the problem. Monophysite and
Chalcedonian bishops were elected in various sees
(sometimes two in one see).

When the Chalcedonian bishop of Alexandria appealed to
Pope Felix III in 484 to secure the support against
Acacius, Bishop of Constantinople, Acacius refused to
recognize Felix III. Pope Felix III then deposed and
excommunicated Acacius.
– This was the first formal split between West and East.
– It ended in 518 when a Chalcedonian bishop was
installed in Constantinople.

Ultimately Syrian and Egyptian (Coptic) churches
rejected Chalcedon and affirmed monophysitism.
Council of Constantinople II (553)
1: If anyone shall not confess that the nature or essence of the Father, of
the Son, and of the Holy Ghost is one, as also the force and the power; [if
anyone does not confess] a consubstantial Trinity, one Godhead to be
worshipped in three subsistences or Persons: let him be anathema. For
there is but one God even the Father of whom are all things, and one Lord
Jesus Christ through whom are all things, and one Holy Spirit in whom are
all things.
 2: If anyone shall not confess that the Word of God has two nativities, the
one from all eternity of the Father, without time and without body; the
other in these last days, coming down from heaven and being made flesh of
the holy and glorious Mary, Mother of God and always a virgin, and born of
her: let him be anathema.
 4: If anyone shall say that the union of the Word of God to man
was only according to grace or energy, or dignity, or equality of
honor, or authority, or relation, or effect, or power, or according to
good pleasure in this sense that God the Word was pleased with a
man, that is to say, that he loved him for his own sake…let him be
anathema.

Council of Constantinople III (680)
…one and the same Christ our Lord the only-begotten Son of two natures
un-confusedly, unchangeably, inseparably indivisibly to be recognized, the
peculiarities of neither nature being lost by the union but rather the
proprieties of each nature being preserved, concurring in one Person and in
one subsistence, not parted or divided into two persons but one and the
same only-begotten Son of God, the Word, our Lord Jesus Christ, according
as the Prophets of old have taught us and as our Lord Jesus Christ himself
hath instructed us, and the Creed of the holy Fathers hath delivered to us;
defining all this we likewise declare that in him are two natural wills and
two natural operations indivisibly, inconvertibly, inseparably, inconfusedly,
according to the teaching of the holy Fathers. And these two natural wills
are not contrary the one to the other (God forbid!) as the impious heretics
assert, but his human will follows and that not as resisting and reluctant,
but rather as subject to his divine and omnipotent will…. For as his most
holy and immaculate animated flesh was not destroyed because it was
deified but continued in its own state and nature, so also his human will,
although deified, was not suppressed, but was rather preserved according
to the saying of Gregory Theologus: "His will [i.e., the Saviour's] is not
contrary to God but altogether deified."
Pope Innocent I (401-417)
The western Emperor Honorius had moved his
government to Ravenna.
 Innocent I was Pope when Rome was sacked by
the Visigoths in 410.
 Innocent I took the opportunity to extend his
authority in both political and theological
contexts.

– He confirmed the decisions of the North African
churches against Pelagianism as he sided with
Augustine.
– He took on political and judicial functions in the city
of Rome, especially the absence of imperial authority.
Pope Leo I (the Great), 440-461
Leo centralized western ecclesial
government and located juridical
power in Rome.
 Leo also led the city politically and
was praised for dissuading Attila
the Hun from sacking Rome in
452.
 Stressed the priority of Rome in
the universal government of the
church, especially as he sought to
maintain jurisdiction over
Illyricum.
 Leo is sometimes regarded as the
“first Roman Pope” since he
stressed his universal
responsibility for the church based
on Petrine supremacy and his
rights as the successor of Peter.

Christian Meeting Places

In the New Testament, the meeting place was
primarily domestic—in homes.

The Jerusalem church met in the temple for
teaching and prayer, and also met in their homes
for breaking bread.

The shift from domestic meeting place to a
dedicated meeting facility had significant impact
on the nature of Christianity.
Dura Europos: Church Plan
Dura Europos: Church Plan
Dura Europas: Baptistry
The Roman Basilica
Romans emphasized law and order.
 Their law courts were not only places for
legal proceedings but were centers of civic
and public activities. They functioned
sometimes as “town meeting” halls under
the guidance of the government.
 The basilica form was adopted by
Christians as the best architecture suited
for church buildings (rather than temples).

The Roman Basilica
Basilicas took their form from a ship. The center
portion was the nave (from Latin word for ship),
flanked by side aisles, and a curved end known
as an apse.
The largest and most impressive Roman basilica was built by Maxentius and finished
by Constantine in the early 4th century. The apse contained a colossal statue of
Constantine. It stood until largely destroyed by an earthquake in the 17th century.
Two views showing how the Basilica
of Maxentius and Constantine would
have appeared originally
Christian Basilica (Constantine’s Basilica at Trier)
Basilica as Church Building

A basilica was a “Roman town hall” derived from
a Greek word which means “belonging to the
king.”

The apse was the authority seat in the hall
where the council or chairperson would sit.

The bishop’s chair was called a throne
(cathedra) because the Greek word also referred
to a teacher’s seat and not only to royalty.
Drawing of St. Peter’s Basilica
Interior of St. Peter’s Basilica
St. John Lateran
Built originally as the Church of the Redeemer, it is the first of Constantine’s
four basilica churches, and was the main church for Rome until the 16th
century when replaced by the new St. Peter’s at the Vatican.
Santa Maria Maggiore
Great basilica church of the fifth century
Interior of Santa Maria Maggiore
Altar of SM
Maggiore.
Some of the original
5th century mosaics
are visible above the
arch behind the altar
Buildings and the Arts
Just as Roman public buildings were decorated
with art, so church buildings were decorated
with frescos and mosaics.
 The earliest known Christian mosaic was found
beneath St. Peter’s Basilica in the 1940s—Jesus
is pictured in a gold mosaic as the sun-god,
Helios.
 Frescos were more common as mosaics were
expensive. Most of these are lost to us due to
the Germanic settling of the West but frescos
were revived in the Renaissance period.

Earliest Christian Mosaic, ca. 300

Earliest known
Christian mosaic was
found beneath St.
Peter’s Basilica in the
1940s—Jesus is
pictured in a gold
mosaic as the sungod, Helios.
Building Churches

Europe saw a “church building” craze in the High
Medieval Period.

In 1050-1350 France alone, 80 cathedrals, 500 large
churches and 10,000+ parish churches were erected.

As Germanic Europe became Christian Europe, the
church building was a cultural as well as a religious
symbol. Churches functioned as “civic centers” in the
cities and thus were also a source of civic pride.
Ralph Glaber, monk, ca. 1050
“Shortly after the year 1000, all Christian
peoples were seized with a great desire
to outdo one another in magnificence. It
was as if the very world had shaken itself,
and, casting off her old garments, was
clothing herself everywhere in a white
robe of churches.”
Romanesque Style

Where: Western Europe

When: 1000-1200

Major Building Form: Churches, Castles
Romanesque Style

Plan: cruciform (Latin Cross),
compartmentalized on a basilica plan

Support: sturdy piers, thick walls with small
windows

Hallmark: rounded arches, barrel vault

Décor: stone sculpture
Romanesque Additions
The pier (an upright support generally
square, or rectangular in plan) is a better
solution for masonry walls, than the
column. Columns are subsequently
replaced by piers, or transformed to better
support the masonry arches.
 The portal as a church entrance was
introduced with the Romanesque style.

Piers at
Saint-Saturnin
Auvergne,France
Church of St. Trophime, Arles,
France (12th century)
Romanesque Style

Effect: Massive, segmented

Interior: dimly lit by small windows and candles/lamps
around the altar.

Inspiration: Roman construction (basilica plan, rounded
arches, vaulted ceilings, columns)

Goal: To accommodate pilgrims; to express awe as eyes
are drawn to the space above the ambulatory with small
windows of light illuminating the altar.
Floor plan of Romanesque Church
Romanesque Church
St. Andrew’s Church, Krakow
(1079)
St. Pantaleon, Cologne, Germany
(1100)
Duomo and Bell Tower, Pisa, Italy
The Pisa Cathedral (1063-1350) with Bell Tower (1174-1271) and Baptistry (1153-1265).