HBS ECA
Unit 1: Identity
Directional Terms
General, directional terms are grouped in pairs of opposites based on
the standard position.
• Superior and inferior. Superior means above, inferior means below.
The elbow is superior (above) to the hand. The foot is inferior
(below) to the knee.
• Anterior (ventral) and posterior (dorsal). Anterior means toward the
front (chest side) of the body, posterior means toward the back.
• Medial and Lateral. Medial means toward the midline of the body,
lateral means away from the midline.
• Proximal and distal. Proximal means closest to the point of origin or
trunk of the body, distal means farthest. Often used when
describing arms and legs. If you were describing the shin bone, the
proximal end would be the end close to the knee and the distal end
would be the end close to the foot.
• Superficial and deep. Superficial means toward the body surface,
deep means farthest from the body surface.
Directional Terms
Regional Terms
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o Abdominal: Abdomen
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Antecubital: Front of Elbow
Axillary: Armpit
Brachial: Arm
Buccal: Cheek
Calcaneal : Heal
Carpal: Wrist
Cephalic: Head
Cervical: Neck
Coxal: Hip
Digital: Fingers
Femoral: Thigh
Gluteal: Buttocks
Inguinal: Groin
o Lumbar: Lower spine
o Nasal: Nose
o Occipital: Back of head
o Olecranal: Behind the elbow joint
o Oral: Mouth
o Orbital: Eye
o Patellar: Knee
o Pelvic: Pelvis
o Popliteal: Back of knee
o Sacral: area of spine containing sacrum
and coccyx
o Scapular: Shoulders
o Sternal: Breast Bone
o Tarsal: Ankle
o Thoracic: Chest/Upper back
o Umbilical: Belly button
o Vertebral : Back
Tissues
Epithelial tissues
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are widespread throughout the body
they form the covering of all body surfaces,
line body cavities and hollow organs
are the major tissue in glands
perform a variety of functions that include
protection, secretion, absorption, excretion,
filtration, diffusion, and sensory reception
Connective tissues
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bind structures together
form a framework
support for organs and the body as a whole
store fat
transport substances
protect against disease
help repair tissue damage
Muscle Tissue
• composed
of cells that have the
special ability to shorten or contract
in order to produce movement of the
body parts
•highly cellular and is well supplied
with blood vessels
•the cells are long and slender so
they are sometimes called muscle
fibers
•are usually arranged in bundles or
layers that are surrounded by
connective tissue
• Actin and myosin are contractile
proteins in muscle tissue.
Nervous tissue
•found in the brain, spinal cord, and
nerves
•responsible for coordinating and controlling
many body activities
•stimulates muscle contraction, creates an
awareness of the environment, and plays a
major role in emotions, memory, and reasoning
•cells in nervous tissue need to be able to
communicate with each other by way of
electrical nerve impulses
Using Bone Features for Identity
• Specialists called forensic anthropologists are trained
to analyze the secrets locked in a bone’s shape and
structure and can use this information to help solve
crimes, trace human origins, or identify those who
have gone missing.
• Forensic anthropologists use a combination of
quantitative and qualitative measures to predict traits
from bone.
• Anthropologists can help identify a deceased from his
or her skeletal remains bearing characteristics of
ancestry, sex, stature, age and trauma.
Using Bone Features for Identity
• Sex: Pelvis, skull, femur, tibia,
humerus
• Race: Skull
• Height: femur, tibia, humerus,
• Age: pelvis, femur, tibia,
humerus
Male Pelvis Subpubic Notch
Female Pelvis Subpubic Notch
Caucasian, Mongoloid, African
Features of the Skull Used in Race
Determination
• Nasal index:
– The ratio of the width to the
height of the nose, multiplied
by 100
• Nasal Spine
– Feel the base of the nasal
cavity, on either side of the
nasal spine – you will feel sharp
ridges (nasal silling), rounded
ridges, or no ridges at all (nasal
guttering)
• Prognathism: extent of lower
jaw
• Shape of eye orbits (round or
square
Nasal spine
Nasal Silling and Guttering
General Shapes of the Eye Orbits
Height/Stature
• Long Bones
Epiphyseal Fusion:
A General Guide
Gel Electrophoresis/PCR
Restriction Enzymes
PCR
• http://www.maxanim.com/genetics/PCR/PCR.
htm
• If I broke my femur at the greater trochanter,
would that be a distal or proximal femur
fracture?
• What bone is located medial to the ribs and
inferior to the clavicle?
Unit 2:
Communication
CNS and PNS
• Central nervous system:
composed of the brain and
spinal cord. Your brain and
spinal cord serve as the
main "processing center"
for the entire nervous
system, and control all the
workings of your body.
• Peripheral nervous
system: The portion of the
nervous system that is
outside the brain and
spinal cord. Connects and
sends messages to CNS.
Brain Regions
• Occipital lobe: processes vision
• Temporal lobe: processes language
• Parietal lobe: processes touch (hands,
fingers, face, lips)
• Frontal lobe: specialized in planning and
voluntary movement, paying attention,
interpreting our emotions and social
situations
• Cerebral cortex: houses the four lobes
of the brain; two hemispheres; most
complex thinking: remembering an
interpreting emotions
• Limbic system :satisfying biological
needs, reproduction, and emotion,
memory
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Hypothalamus: hunger, thirst, sex drive
Pituitary gland: cycles of consciousness
thalamus processes all sensory information to
cerebral cortex
Hippocampus: formation and storage of new
memories
Amygdala : processes associations between
unpleasant emotions and memory for those
emotions
Basal ganglia: group of neurons working
together to help plan and produce movement
(Parkinson's)
Medulla : controls basic autonomic functions
like circulation, breathing, digestion
Pons: relay station from hindbrain to cerebral
cortex
Cerebellum: coordination of motor function
Brainstem : lowest part of brain; basics of life
support, and neurons that control
sensory/motor skills
Neurons
• Sensory neuron: a neuron
conducting impulses
inwards to the brain or
spinal cord
• Association neuron:
neurons found in the brain
and spinal cord that conduct
impulses between neurons
• Motor neuron: a neuron
that conveys impulses from
the central nervous system
to a muscle, gland, or other
effector tissue
Dendrite
Axon Terminals
Node of Ranvier
Cell Body
Schwann Cells
Axon
Myelin Sheath
Nucleus
Action Potential
Resting Potential
Depolarization
Repolarization
Return to
Resting Potential
Na+/K+ pump
Hormones
• Any one of the many circulating chemical signals found in all
multicellular organisms that are formed in specialized cells, travel in
body fluids, and coordinate the various parts of the organism by
interacting with target cells.
• Hormones are secreted by tissues in the body referred to as glands.
• Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream
while exocrine glands secrete hormones into ducts, or passageways,
before they reach their target.
• The endocrine system, works with the nervous system to regulate
and control all the actions of the human machine.
Endocrine System
• Endocrine System : The glands and parts of glands that produce endocrine
secretions, help to integrate and control bodily metabolic activity, and include
especially the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenals, islets of Langerhans, ovaries,
and testes.
• Endocrine Gland : A gland (as the thyroid or the pituitary) that produces an
endocrine secretion -- called also ductless gland, gland of internal secretion.
• Exocrine Gland : A gland (as a sweat gland, a salivary gland, or a kidney) that
releases a secretion external to or at the surface of an organ by means of a canal or
duct.
• Glucagon : A protein hormone that is produced especially by the pancreatic islets
of Langerhans and that promotes an increase in the sugar content of the blood by
increasing the rate of breakdown of glycogen in the liver.
• Insulin :A vertebrate hormone that lowers blood glucose levels by promoting the
uptake of glucose by most body cells and the synthesis and storage of glycogen in
the liver.
Endocrine System Cont.
• Hypothalamus : The ventral part of the vertebrate
forebrain; functions in maintaining homeostasis,
especially in coordinating the endocrine and nervous
systems; secretes hormones of the posterior pituitary
and releasing factors, which regulate the anterior
pituitary.
• Pituitary gland : An endocrine gland at the base of the
hypothalamus; consists of a posterior lobe, which
stores and releases two hormones produced by the
hypothalamus, and an anterior lobe, which produces
and secretes many hormones that regulate diverse
body functions.
Hormone Imbalance and Feedback
Loops
Negative feedback loop - The body senses an internal
change and activates mechanisms that reverse, or
negate, that change.
•body temperature regulation
Positive feedback loop - a process in which the body
senses a change and activates mechanisms that
accelerate or increase that change
•blood clotting
Hormone Imbalance and Feedback
Loops
Hormone Imbalance and Feedback
Loops
The Eye
The Eye
• Accommodation : The automatic adjustment of the eye for seeing at different
distances affected chiefly by changes in the convexity of the crystalline lens.
• Astigmatism : A defect of an optical system (as a lens) causing rays from a point
to fail to meet in a focal point resulting in a blurred and imperfect image.
• Blind spot: The small circular area in the retina where the optic nerve enters the
eye that is devoid of rods and cones and is insensitive to light.
• Cone : Any of the conical photosensitive receptor cells of the vertebrate retina
that function in color vision.
• Cornea: The transparent part of the coat of the eyeball that covers the iris and
pupil and admits light to the interior.
• Depth Perception : The ability to judge the distance of objects and the spatial
relationship of objects at different distances.
• Hyperopia: A condition in which visual images come to a focus behind the
retina of the eye and vision is better for distant than for near objects -- called
also farsightedness.
The Eye
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Iris : The opaque muscular contractile diaphragm that is suspended in the aqueous humor in front of the lens of
the eye, is perforated by the pupil and is continuous peripherally with the ciliary body, has a deeply pigmented
posterior surface which excludes the entrance of light except through the pupil and a colored anterior surface
which determines the color of the eyes.
Lens : A curved piece of glass or plastic used singly or combined in eyeglasses or an optical instrument (as a
microscope) for forming an image by focusing rays of light.
Myopia : A condition in which the visual images come to a focus in front of the retina of the eye because of defects
in the refractive media of the eye or of abnormal length of the eyeball resulting especially in defective vision of
distant objects -- called also nearsightedness.
Optic nerve: Either of the pair of sensory nerves that comprise the second pair of cranial nerves, arise from the
ventral part of the diencephalon, form an optic chiasma before passing to the eye and spreading over the anterior
surface of the retina, and conduct visual stimuli to the brain.
Pupil: The opening in the iris, which admits light into the interior of the vertebrate eye; muscles in the iris regulate
its size.
Refraction: The deflection from a straight path undergone by a light ray or a wave of energy in passing obliquely
from one medium (as air) into another (as water or glass) in which its velocity is different.
Retina : The sensory membrane that lines most of the large posterior chamber of the vertebrate eye, is composed
of several layers including one containing the rods and cones, and functions as the immediate instrument of vision
by receiving the image formed by the lens and converting it into chemical and nervous signals which reach the
brain by way of the optic nerve.
Rod :Any of the long rod-shaped photosensitive receptors in the retina responsive to faint light.
The Eye: Focusing Light
• Light rays enter the eye through the cornea.
• The iris works like a shutter in a camera.
• After passing through the iris, the light rays pass thru the eye's
natural crystalline lens.
• Light rays pass through a dense, transparent gel-like substance,
called the vitreous that fills the globe of the eyeball and helps the
eye hold its spherical shape.
• In a normal eye, the light rays come to a sharp focusing point on the
retina.
• The retina's functions much like the film in a camera. It is
responsible for capturing all of the light rays, processing them into
light impulses through millions of tiny nerve endings, then sending
these light impulses through over a million nerve fibers to the optic
nerve.
Unit 3: Power
Digestive System
•Digestion: allows your body to get the
nutrients and energy it needs from the food
you eat
•Mouth: mechanical digestion, salivary
amylase starts protein breakdown
•Esophagus: peristalsis pushes food down
tube
•Stomach: holds food while being mixed with
enzymes to help with digestion
•Small intestine: most digestion occurs here,
absorption of nutrients
•Pancreas: secretes digestive enzymes
•Liver: produces bile to help digest fat
•Gall bladder: stores bile
•Large intestine: responsible for processing
waste so that emptying the bowels is easy
and convenient (water reabsorption)
FOOD TYPE
ENZYME
SOURCE
PRODUCTS
CARBOHYDRATES
Salivary amylase
Pancreatic amylase
Salivary glands
Pancreas
Maltose
Maltose
Maltase
Small intestine
Glucose
Sucrase
Small intestine
Monosacc
Lactase
Small intestine
Monosacc
Pepsin
Trypsin
Stomach mucosa
Pancreas
Peptides
Peptides
(amino)Peptidases
Intestinal mucosa
Amino acids
FATS
Lipase
Pancreas
Fatty acids
and glycerol
Nucleases
Nucleic Acids
Pancreas
Nucleotides
PROTEINS
Enzymes
• Salivary amylase: starches and carbohydrates
• Pepsin: proteins
• Pancreatic amylase: starches and
carbohydrates
• Lipases: fats
• Proteases: proteins
Enzymes
• Catalysts
• facilitates or helps a
reaction to occur more
readily by reducing the
energy required for the
reaction to occur
• Lock and Key model
• Induced Fit model
• Substrate
• Active Sites
ATP
Respiratory System
Respiratory System
• Alveoli :Terminal air sacs that constitute the gas exchange surface
of the lungs.
• Bronchi: Pair of breathing tubes that branch from the trachea into
the lungs.
• Minute Volume: The volume of air breathed in one minute without
conscious effort. Minute volume = Tidal Volume x (breaths/minute)
• Residual Volume: The volume of air remaining in lungs after
maximum exhalation.
• Spirometer: An instrument for measuring the air entering and
leaving the lungs.
• Tidal Volume: The volume of air breathed in and out without
conscious effort.
• Vital Capacity: The total volume of air that can be exhaled after
maximal inhalation.
Gas Exchange
• Gas exchange is the process by which oxygen and carbon dioxide (the
respiratory gases) move in opposite directions across an organism's
respiratory membranes, between the air or water of the external
environment and the body fluids of the internal environment.
• The net diffusion of a substance occurs because of a difference in its
concentration, or gradient.
• Within an animal's body, as oxygen is used up and carbon dioxide
produced, the concentration gradient of the two gases provides the
direction for their diffusion.
• As air or water nears the respiratory membrane, the oxygen concentration
on the outside of the membrane is higher than on the internal side so
oxygen diffuses inward
• The concentration gradient for carbon dioxide is in the opposite direction,
and so net diffusion of carbon dioxide keeps it diffusing out of the body.
Urinary System
The role of the kidneys is to
maintain homeostasis by
controlling the chemical
composition of the blood. The
kidneys do this by:
Removing waste products from
the blood
Leaving nutrients such as
proteins and glucose in the
blood
Maintaining the acid-base
balance
Regulating water and
electrolyte balance
Urinary System
Urinalysis
• A test that determines the content of the
urine.
• Macroscopic Examination: Color and clarity
• Chemical analysis: pH, specific gravity, protein
content, glucose content, ketone content
• Microscopic Examination: red blood cells,
white blood cells, epithelial cells, crystals,
bacteria
Unit 4: Movement
Joints
Joints
• Abduction: Movement away from the midline of the body
• Adduction : Movement toward the midline off the body
• Circumduction: A movement at a synovial joint in which the distal end of the
bone moves in a circle while the proximal end remains relatively stable
• Dorsiflexion : Bending the foot in the direction of the dorsum (upper surface)
• Extension: An unbending movement around a joint in a limb (as the knee or
elbow) that increases the angle between the bones of the limb at the joint
• Flexion : A bending movement around a joint in a limb (as the knee or elbow)
that decreases the angle between the bones of the limb at the joint
• Plantar flexion: Bending the foot in the direction of the plantar surface (sole)
• Range of Motion: The range through which a joint can be moved
• Rotation : Moving a bone around its own axis, with no other movement
Muscles
Type of
Muscle
Striations
Voluntary
Location in
body
Function in
body
Skeletal
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Y
Skeletal
muscles
Movement of
body
Smooth
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N
Hollow
organs and
blood vessels
Move
substances
within the
body
Cardiac
Y
N
Heart
Contract
heart
Muscle
Muscle contraction
Arteries vs. Veins
Arteries
Veins
Direction of Blood Flow:
Oxygenated blood from the Deoxygenated blood from
heart to various parts of
various parts of the body
the body.
to the heart.
Anatomy:
Thick, elastic muscle layer
that can handle high
pressure of the blood
flowing through the
arteries.
Thin, elastic muscle layer
with semilunar valves that
prevent the blood from
flowing in the opposite
direction.
Overview:
Arteries are red blood
vessels that carry blood
away from the heart.
Veins are blood vessels
that carry blood towards
the heart.
Oxygen Concentration:
Arteries carry oxygenated
blood (with the exception
of the pulmonary artery).
Veins carry deoxygenated
blood (with the exception
of pulmonary veins).
Arteries vs. Veins vs. Capillaries
•Capillaries are the smallest of all
blood vessels and form the connection
between veins and arteries.
•Capillaries have very thin walls
comprised only of endothelial cells,
which allows substances to move
through the wall with ease.
•Main function of capillaries is gas
exchange
Varicose Veins
Blood Flow
Cardiac Output
• The volume of blood ejected from the left side of
the heart in one minute.
• Changes in heart rate influence the amount of
blood that is pumped to our tissues.
• Changes in cardiac output often signal disease of
the heart.
• Factors such as exercise and heart damage both
affect the movement of blood in your body and,
consequently, can impact cardiac output.
ABI (ankle brachial index)
• The ABI is a painless measurement that evaluates the
circulation in your legs.
• the doctor listens to the flow of blood and measures the
blood pressure in both the arms and the feet
• Normally, these two pressures should be about equal.
• A significantly lower pressure in the ankle usually indicates
that there is a problem with blood flow in the legs.
• Peripheral artery disease: A form of peripheral vascular
disease in which there is partial or total blockage of an
artery, usually one leading to a leg or arm.
• Peripheral vascular disease : Vascular disease affecting
blood vessels outside of the heart and especially those
vessels supplying the extremities.
Energy and Motion – Exercise
Physiology Vocab
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Aerobic: Containing oxygen; referring to an organism, environment, or cellular process that
requires oxygen
Anabolic steroids: Any of a group of usually synthetic hormones that are derivatives of
testosterone, are used medically especially to promote tissue growth, and are sometimes
abused by athletes to increase the size and strength of their muscles and improve endurance
Anaerobic: Lacking oxygen; referring to an organism, environment, or cellular process that
lacks oxygen and may be poisoned by it
Blood Doping: A technique for temporarily improving athletic performance in which
oxygen-carrying red blood cells previously withdrawn from an athlete are injected back just
before an event
Cellular respiration: The most prevalent and efficient catabolic pathway for the production
of ATP, in which oxygen is consumed as a reactant along with the organic fuel
Creatine phosphate: A compound of creatine and phosphoric acid that is found especially in
vertebrate muscle where it is an energy source for muscle contraction
Erythropoietin : A hormonal substance that is formed especially in the kidney and
stimulates red blood cell formation
Glycogen : A highly branched polymer of glucose containing thousands of subunits;
functions as a compact store of glucose molecules in liver and muscle fibers
Lactic acid : An organic acid present in blood and muscle tissue as a product of the
anaerobic metabolism of glucose and glycogen
Muscle Fatigue: Inability of muscle to maintain its strength of contraction or tension; may
be related to insufficient oxygen, depletion of glycogen, and/or lactic acid buildup
Exercise and ATP
• For your muscles -- in fact, for every cell in your body -- the source of
energy that keeps everything going is called ATP. Adenosine triphosphate
(ATP) is the biochemical way to store and use energy.
• The body has access to two different types of energy systems: anaerobic
and aerobic.
• Anaerobic: It uses a substance called creatine phosphate (CP) to produce
adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is located in our muscles and is the
body's main energy source, allowing us to move and function
• The body's long-term energy source is aerobic in nature, meaning the
presence of oxygen is necessary. This energy system relies on the chemical
breakdown of muscle glycogen, blood glucose, plasma-free fatty acids and
stored intramuscular fats to produce ATP.
• Many activities involve a mix of both aerobic and anaerobic energy systems
• The more intense an activity and the closer it is to your maximum work
output, the greater the amount of energy that is derived from anaerobic
sources as opposed to aerobic energy systems used with sub-maximal
activities.
Unit 5: Protection
Skin
Skin
• The skin is a living, functioning organ that plays a key role in
maintaining the body’s homeostasis.
• The skin protects the human body, but it also allows humans to
connect with the outside world.
• The skin is composed of two main layers, the epidermis and the
dermis, and contains accessory organs such as sweat glands and
hair follicles.
• The skin is a dynamic organ that functions in protection,
temperature regulation, sensation, excretion and absorption in the
human body.
• Burn damage to skin can impact numerous body functions and
body systems.
• Both the body’s ability to sense pain and to suppress pain help
protect the human body from injury and death.
Skin Vocabulary
Collagen
Connective Tissue
Dermis
Elastin
Endorphin
Epidermis
Epithelium
Exocrine gland
First-degree burn
Keratin
Melanin
Pain
Sebaceous gland
Second-degree burn
Third-degree burn
An insoluble fibrous protein of vertebrates that is the chief constituent of the fibrils of connective
tissue (as in skin and tendons) and of the organic substance of bones.
Animal tissue that functions mainly to bind and support other tissues, having a sparse population of
cells scattered through an extracellular matrix.
The sensitive vascular inner mesodermic layer of the skin.
A protein that is similar to collagen and is the chief constituent of elastic fibers.
A hormone produced in the brain and anterior pituitary that inhibits pain perception .
The outer nonsensitive and nonvascular layer of the skin of a vertebrate that overlies the dermis.
A membranous cellular tissue that covers a free surface or lines a tube or cavity of an animal body
and serves especially to enclose and protect the other parts of the body, to produce secretions and
excretions, and to function in assimilation.
A gland (as a sweat gland, a salivary gland, or a kidney) that releases a secretion external to or at
the surface of an organ by means of a canal or duct.
A mild burn characterized by heat, pain, and reddening of the burned surface but not exhibiting
blistering or charring of tissues.
Any of various sulfur-containing fibrous proteins that form the chemical basis of epidermal tissues (as
hair and nails) and are typically not digested by enzymes of the gastrointestinal tract.
Any of various black, dark brown, reddish brown, or yellow pigments of animal or plant structures (as
in skin and hair).
Basic bodily sensation that is induced by a noxious stimulus, is received by naked nerve endings, is
characterized by physical discomfort (as pricking, throbbing, or aching), and typically leads to
evasive action.
Any of the small sacculated glands lodged in the substance of the derma, usually opening into the
hair follicles, and secreting an oily or greasy material composed in great part of fat which softens and
lubricates the hair and skin.
A burn marked by pain, blistering, and superficial destruction of dermis with edema and hyperemia of
the tissues beneath the burn.
Severe burn characterized by destruction of the skin through the depth of the dermis and possibly
into underlying tissues, loss of fluid, and sometimes shock.
Burns
Burns
•First-degree burns may be treated with skin care products like aloe vera
cream or an antibiotic ointment and pain medication such as
acetaminophen (Tylenol).
•Second-degree burns may be treated with an antibiotic cream or other
creams or ointments prescribed by a doctor.
•The treatment of third-degree burns may require the process of skin
grafting or the use of synthetic skin. Severe burns covering large parts of
the body may need more intensive treatments such as I.V. antibiotics to
prevent infection or I.V. fluids to replace fluids lost when skin was
burned.
Bone
Bone Vocabulary
Bone marrow
A soft highly vascular modified connective tissue that occupies the cavities and cancellous part of
most bones and occurs in two forms – yellow and red.
Bone remodeling
The continuous turnover of bone matrix and mineral that involves first, an increase in resorption and
osteoclast activity, and later, reactive bone formation by osteoblast activity.
Calcitonin
A polypeptide hormone especially from the thyroid gland that tends to lower the level of calcium in
the blood plasma.
A growth of new bone tissue in and around a fractured area, ultimately replaced by mature bone.
Callus
Cartilage
A usually translucent somewhat elastic tissue that composes most of the skeleton of vertebrate
embryos and except for a small number of structures (as some joints, respiratory passages, and the
external ear) is replaced by bone during ossification in the higher vertebrates.
Compact bone
Bone tissue that contains few spaces between osteons; forms the external portion of all bones and
the bulk of the diaphysis (shaft) of long bones.
Diaphysis
Epiphysis
The shaft of a long bone.
The end of a long bone, usually larger in diameter than the shaft.
Fracture
Osteoblast
Osteoclast
The breaking of hard tissue (as bone).
A bone-forming cell.
Any of the large multinucleate cells closely associated with areas of bone resorption (as in a fracture
that is healing).
Cell that is characteristic of adult bone and is isolated in a lacuna of the bone substance.
Osteocyte
Parathyroid hormone
Spongy (cancellous) bone
A hormone of the parathyroid gland that regulates the metabolism of calcium and phosphorus in the
body.
Bone tissue that consists of an irregular latticework of thin plates of bone called trabeculae; found
inside short, flat, and irregular bones and in the epiphyses of long bone.
4 stages of bone healing
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Step 1 – Hematoma Formation Blood vessels that are ruptured during the break
swell to form a mass called a hematoma. This mass forms between the broken
bones.
o Step 2 – Fibrocartilage Callus Formation New capillaries begin to form into the
clotted blood in the damaged area. Connective tissues cells form a mass of repair
tissue called a fibrocartilage callus. This callus contains some cartilage, some bone
and collagen fibers and the combined mass closes the gap between the broken
bones.
o Step 3 – Bony Callus Formation The fibrocartilage callus is gradually replaced by
one made of spongy bone. This new mass is referred to as the bony callus.
Osteoclasts and osteoblasts move to the area and multiply.
o Step 4 – Bone Remodeling Over the weeks and months to come, the callus is
remodeled with the help of osteoclasts and osteoblasts. The shape of the bones
will gradually return to normal and there will eventually be little evidence of the
fracture.
Calcium Feedback Loop
Agglutination
Alleles
Antibody
Antigen
B lymphocyte (B cell)
Blood type (group)
Lymph and Blood Cells
Clumping of microorganisms or blood cells, typically due to an antigen-antibody interaction.
Alternate forms of a single gene that control the same inherited trait (such as type A blood) and are located at
the same position on homologous chromosomes.
An antigen-binding immunoglobulin, produced by B cells, that functions as the effector in an immune
response.
A foreign macromolecule that does not belong to the host organism and elicits and immune response.
A type of lymphocyte that develops in the bone marrow and later produces antibodies, which mediate humoral
immunity.
One of the classes (as A, B, AB, or O) into which individual vertebrates and especially human beings or their
blood can be separated on the basis of the presence or absence of specific antigens in the blood.
Immunity
A condition of being able to resist a particular disease especially through preventing development of a
pathogenic microorganism or by counteracting the effects of its products.
Lymph
A usually clear fluid that passes from intercellular spaces of body tissue into the lymphatic vessels, is
discharged into the blood by way of the thoracic duct and right lymphatic duct, and resembles blood plasma in
containing white blood cells and especially lymphocytes but normally few red blood cells and no platelets.
Lymph node
Any of the rounded masses of lymphoid tissue that are surrounded by a capsule of connective tissue, are
distributed along the lymphatic vessels, and contain numerous lymphocytes which filter the flow of lymph
passing through the node.
Lymphocyte
Any of the colorless weakly motile cells that originate from stem cells and differentiate in lymphoid tissue (as
of the thymus or bone marrow), that are the typical cellular elements of lymph, that include the cellular
mediators of immunity, and that constitute 20 to 30 percent of the white blood cells of normal human blood.
Macrophage
An amoeboid cell that moves through tissue fibers, engulfing bacteria and dead cells by phagocytosis.
Memory cell
A long-lived lymphocyte that carries the antibody or receptor for a specific antigen after a first exposure to the
antigen and that remains in a less than mature state until stimulated by a second exposure to the antigen at
which time it mounts a more effective immune response than a cell which has not been exposed previously.
Pathogen
A specific causative agent (as a bacterium or virus) of disease.
Pedigree
A diagram of a family tree showing the heritable characters in parents and offspring over multiple generations
.
A type of lymphocyte responsible for cell-mediated immunity that differentiates under the influence of the
thymus.
T lymphocyte (T cells)
Lymphatic System
• Consists of organs, ducts, and nodes and transports a
watery clear fluid called lymph.
• Lymph vessels interact with the circulatory system to drain
this fluid from your cells and tissues.
• Lymph also distributes immune cells around the body.
• Anything that is foreign to the body and gets your immune
system fired up is referred to as an antigen. Antibodies are
proteins in blood and lymph that seek out and bind to
specific antigens. These specialized proteins are one of the
primary defenders in your body’s army of immunity. Your
body contains tons of antibodies, each designed to target
and destroy a specific antigen.
Blood Transfusions
Type A
Type B
Type AB
Type O
Red Blood Cell
Surface Antigen
A
B
AB
none
Plasma
Antibodies
Anti B
Anti A
None
Anti A & Anti
B
Can Receive
Blood From…
O and A
O and B
AB, A, B, O
O
Can Give Blood
to…
A, AB
Possible
Genotype
IAIA
Universal
Recipient
B, AB
AB
A, B, O, AB
Universal Donor
or
IAi
IBIB
or
IBi
IAIB
ii
Unit 6: Homeostasis
Homeostasis Unit Key Terms and
Concepts
Case Study
Homeostasis
Identity
Intervention
A detailed analysis of a person or group, especially as a
model of medical, psychiatric, psychological, or social
phenomena.
The maintenance of relatively stable internal
physiological conditions (as body temperature or the pH
of blood) in higher animals under fluctuating
environmental conditions.
The distinguishing character or personality of an
individual.
Any measure whose purpose is to improve health or
alter the course of disease.
Concepts
1. Factors in the external environment affect the body’s internal environment and overall
ability to maintain homeostasis.
2. Human body systems work together to defend against disease and injury and to maintain
health and wellness.
3. Medical interventions, measures that improve health or alter the course of a disease,
include preventative measures, diagnostic tests, treatments, and rehabilitation.