Learning Part 2
Operant Conditioning
•Operant Conditioning - Associate
own actions with consequences
•Actions followed by reinforcers
increase
•Actions followed by punishments
decrease
•Operant Behavior – behavior that
produces consequences
•The Learner is NOT passive
•Voluntary Response.
•Learning associations between
events organism does control and
own behavior
The Law of Effect
• Edward Thorndike
• Locked cats in a cage
• Behavior changes because
of its consequences.
• Rewarded behavior is likely
to recur.
• If consequences are
unpleasant, the StimulusReward connection will
weaken.
• Called the whole process
instrumental learning.
B.F. Skinner
• The Big Daddy of
Operant
Conditioning.
• Nurture guy through
and through.
• Used a Skinner Box
(Operant
Conditioning
Chamber) to prove
his concepts.
Skinner Box – an operant
conditioning chamber
containing a bar or key that an
animal can manipulate to
obtain a reinforcer (food), a
device records these
responses
Shaping Behavior
Shaping is reinforcing
small steps on the way
to the desired
behavior.
Example:
To train a dog to get
your slippers, you would
have to reinforce him in
small steps. First, to
find the slippers. Then
to put them in his
mouth. Then to bring
them to you and so
on…this is shaping
behavior.
To get Barry to become a better student, you
need to do more than give him a massage when
he gets good grades. You have to give him
massages when he studies for ten minutes, or
for when he completes his homework. Small
steps to get to the desired behavior.
Shaping Behavior
Successive Approximations –
rewarding responses that are
ever-closer to the final desired
behavior and ignore all other
responses
Example:
1.
You could train
your boyfriend
this way too!!
Reinforces
• A reinforcer is anything the INCREASES a
behavior.
Positive Reinforcement:
• The addition of something pleasant.
Negative Reinforcement:
• The removal of something unpleasant.
• Two types of NR
• Escape Learning
• Avoidance Learning
(Getting kicked out of class versus cutting class)
NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT IS NOT
PUNISHMENT
Positive or Negative?
Putting your seatbelt on.
Faking sick to
avoid Psych class.
Studying for a test.
Having a headache and
taking an aspirin.
Breaking out
of jail.
Getting a kiss
for doing the
dishes.
Primary v. Secondary Reinforcers
Primary Reinforcer
• Things that are in
themselves rewarding
• Example:
Conditioned Reinforcer/Secondary
Reinforcer
• A stimulus that gains its
reinforcing power through
assoc. with a primary
reinforcer
• Things we have learned to
value.
• Example:
Punishment
Meant to decrease a
behavior.
Positive Punishment
• Addition of something
unpleasant.
Negative Punishment
(Omission Training)
• Removal of something
pleasant.
Punishment works best
when it is immediately
done after behavior
and if it is harsh!
Positive or Negative?
Spanking
Time out
Losing
Detention
Driving
Privileges
Punishments
• Punished behavior is
suppressed, not
forgotten
• Punishment teaches
discrimination
• Punishment can teach
fear
• Physical punishment
may increase
aggressiveness
(modeling)
Reinforcement & Punishment
Positive
Negative
Reinforcement
Add good
Remove bad
Punishment
Add bad
Remove good
Same Terminology as Classical
Conditioning
• Acquisition – Associating response
with a consequence
• Extinction – Responding decreases
when reinforcement stops
• Spontaneous Recovery –
reappearance of a behavior after an
extinguished response
• Generalization – responses to a
similar stimuli are being reinforced
• Discrimination – learn that certain
responses and not others will b e
reinforced
If we wanted to
reinforce this baby’s
dancing by giving him
lollipops when he
dances. Identify the
following….
Token Economy
• Every time a desired
behavior is performed,
a token is given.
• They can trade tokens
in for a variety of
prizes (reinforcers)
• Used in homes, prisons,
mental institutions and
schools.
• Example:
Immediate and Delayed
Reinforcers
• Immediate – present reinforcer right after
the desired behavior
• Delayed – most animals will not learn the
desired behavior, however, humans do respond
– Paycheck at end of the week
– Good Grade at end of term
• Delaying gratification for more valued rewards
is part of maturity
– Children who delay gratification are more socially
competent and high achieving adults
• Marshmallow Study
Superstitions
• Superstitious behavior is
reinforced, but the
reinforcer is not contingent
on the behavior
• Someone is rewarded or
punished for a random set
of actions
• Example:
Reinforcement Schedules
How often do you give
the reinforcer?
• Every time or just
sometimes you see
the behavior.
Continuous v. Partial
Reinforcement
•
•
•
•
Continuous
Reinforce the behavior
EVERYTIME the behavior
is exhibited.
Usually done when the
subject is first learning
to make the association.
Acquisition comes really
fast.
But so does extinction.
Partial
• Reinforce the behavior
only SOME of the times
it is exhibited.
• Acquisition comes more
slowly.
• But is more resistant to
extinction.
• FOUR types of Partial
Reinforcement
schedules.
Ratio Schedules
Fixed Ratio
Variable Ratio
• Provides a reinforcement
• Provides a
after a RANDOM number of
reinforcement after a
responses (unpredictable).
SET number of
responses.
• Very hard to get acquisition
but also very resistant to
extinction.
Examples:
Interval Schedules
Fixed Interval
Variable Interval
• Requires a SET amount
of time to elapse before
giving the
reinforcement.
• Requires a RANDOM
amount of time
(unpredictable) to
elapse before giving the
reinforcement.
• Very hard to get
acquisition but also very
resistant to extinction.
Examples:
Reinforcement Schedules
Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed
Variable
Ratio
Every so many; a set
number
After an unpredictable
number; a changing
number
Interval
Every so often; a fixed
amount of time
Unpredictably often; a
changing amount of time
Cognition and Operant Conditioning
• Expectancy – organisms
develop expectations that
a response will be
reinforced or punished
– Animals on fixed-interval
reinforcement schedule
respond more and more
frequently as the time
approaches when a response
will produce a reinforcer
Latent Leaning
Edward Toleman
Three rat experiment.
Latent means hidden.
Sometimes learning is
not immediately
evident.
• Rats needed a reason
to display what they
have learned.
•
•
•
•
Insight Learning
• Wolfgang Kohler and
his Chimpanzees.
• Some animals learn
through the “ah ha”
experience.
Click pic to see insight learning.
Intrinsic Motivation
• Who remembers the
Overjustification Effect?
• Intrinsic motivation –
motivation that comes from
inside an individual without
external rewards
• Extrinsic Motivation –
motivation that comes from
promised rewards or to
avoid punishment
Biological Predispositions
• Organisms learn
behaviors similar to
their own natural
behaviors best
• Unnatural behaviors
instinctively drift
back toward natural
ones
Skinner’s Legacy
Applications of Operant Conditioning
•
•
•
•
At school
In sports
At home
For selfimprovement
Contrasting Classical and Operant
Conditioning
Observational Learning
• Observational
learning/Social
Learning – learning by
observing and imitating
others
• Modeling – the process
of observing and
imitating a specific
behavior
Children who receive
physical punishment tend
to display more aggression
Mirrors in the Brain
• Mirror neurons – frontal lobe neurons that
fire when performing certain actions or when
observing others
– Example:
• Theory of mind – a child’s developmental
ability to empathize and infer another
persons state of mind
– Example:
Observational Learning
• Albert Bandura and
his BoBo Doll
• We learn through
modeling behavior
from others.
• Observational learning
+ Operant
Conditioning = Social
Learning Theory
Prosocial vs Antisocial Effects
• Prosocial effects – positive,
constructive, helpful behavior
• Antisocial effects – negative,
destructive, unhelpful behavior