Spring Final Exam Review
2015
Evolution
•
Charles Darwin said that
evolution occurred due to
Natural Selection.
Evolution = change in a
POPULATION over time
Natural Selection occurs due to:
a. Variation exists in nature
b. More offspring are produced than will survive
c. There is a constant struggle for survival
d. Some individuals in the species will have variations that
cause them to be the most fit in a particular
environment.
e. Vast amount of time is required for a species to change
Evolution
• What evolves?
– The individual does not evolve; the POPULATION evolves.
• Where does the variation within a species originate?
– Mutations in DNA are the source of all new variations
– Helpful mutations increase fitness of the individual
– Harmful mutations decrease fitness.
– The frequency of the mutated gene will increase if it is a helpful
mutation
Evidence to Support Evolution
• What are adaptations?
– Physical or behavioral traits that helps
an individual survive & reproduce in its
environment.
• The long neck of a giraffe is an example of
an adaptation.
• Fossil Records
– Fossils in lowest sedimentary rock
layers are older and simpler than
fossils found in higher layers of rock.
• Example of Relative age dating
• The youngest and most complex fossils are
found in the top layers of rock.
Evidence to Support Evolution
• Homologous Structures
– Similar structures but different functions
• Whale’s flippers and humans arms are
examples of homologous structures.
– Show evidence of a common ancestor
• Vestigial Structures
• structures or organs that are reduced in size;
do not seem to serve a useful function
• Hip bones in whales and snakes are examples
of vestigial organs because they serve no
function.
• Analogous Structures
– Similar structure, similar function
– Originated from different embryological
structures
• Example: Wing of an insect and wing of a bird
Evidence to Support Evolution
• Similarities in Embryology
– The embryos of vertebrates are very
similar during early development.
– Common cells & tissues growing in
similar ways produce homologous
structures.
– The same groups of embryonic cells
develop in the same order and in
similar patterns to produce tissues &
organs.
 All vertebrate embryos are alike in that they all have similar
patterns of development, especially in the very early stages,
which suggests a common ancestor.
Survival of the Fittest & Natural Selection
• Darwin proposed that natural selection was the
mechanism for evolution.
• Individuals vary in one or more traits & there
can be slight differences in their ability to
survive & reproduce (FITNESS).
• Nature selects those individuals w/ favorable
traits to leave more offspring that are better
suited (FIT) for their environment.
Label Each Type of Evidence for Evolution
B
A
Vestigial Structures
Embryology
C
Homologous
Structures
D
Fossil Record
3 Types of Natural Selection:
1. Directional Selection
2. Disruptive Selection
3. Stabilizing Selection
Directional Selection
By favoring either of the extreme forms of a trait,
directional selection can lead the one population
to evolve into a new species.
Disruptive Selection
In this type, both extreme forms of a trait are favored. In
some cases, there may be no intermediate forms, which can
lead to the evolution of two new species. (Speciation occurs)
Stabilizing Selection
This type of natural selection favors average
individuals. In this way, variation in a population is
reduced. Evolution does not occur.
Stabilizing Selection
Low mortality,
high fitness
High mortality,
low fitness
Selection against
both extremes
keep curve
narrow and in
same place.
Types of Natural Selection Practice
• __ B _a a. Does not lead to speciation or evolution.
• __ C _ b. Cause one species to evolve into two
different species.
• __ A __ c. Causes one species to evolve into a
different species.
• __ A _ d. Type of selection that favors one extreme
variation.
• __ B _ e. Type of selection that favors the average
variation.
• __ C _ f. Type of selection that favors the two
extreme variations.
Genetic Drift
 Another source of evolutionary change.
 Allele frequencies can become more or less common
simply by chance.
 Genetic Drift - Random change in allele frequencies
that occurs in small populations.
 The smaller a population is, the farther the results may be from what
the laws of probability predict.
 Unlike natural selection because:
1. It happens by chance - such as random mating or a natural
disaster (fire, landslide or lightning strike).
How does Geographic and Reproductive
isolation lead to speciation?
 Geographic isolation: a barrier that physically separates
members of a species into two or more groups.
 Members of an original species can no longer breed
together to produce fertile offspring so they are
reproductively isolated and now 2 species.
Behavioral Isolation
 2 species do not breed due to behavior
 Female meadowlark only responds to mating call of males that are
like them
 Blue-footed boobies perform elaborate dance to show off blue feet.
Helps identify himself to female as a potential mate.
 Male fireflies signal to females by flashing their lights in specific
patterns. Females only respond to signals flashed by own species
(keeps them from mating with other closely related firefly species)
Survival of the fittest and Genetic
Equilibrium
 Nature selects (Natural selection) those individuals w/
favorable traits to leave more offspring that are better suited
(FIT) for their environment
 Genetic Equilibrium
 when no change takes place.
 What must occur in order for allele frequencies to remain
constant?
 Random mating, no mutations, no movement into or out of population
and no natural selection
Why do we classify organisms?

1. Why Classify?
a. To study the diversity of life
b. To group organisms according to shared
lines of evolutionary descent
2. Why are organisms given scientific names?
a. Common names are misleading
jellyfish
silverfish
star fish
None of these animals are fish!
Cladograms
• Diagram used to show the evolutionary
relationships among groups of organisms
• The more derived characteristics the organisms
have in common, the more closely related they are.
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Which letter designates the most recent common
ancestor of the ant and grasshopper? C
The traits on the lines are called – derived
characters
Give the number of where would you place the
trait “doubled wing pairs” 2
Which letter designates the most recent common
ancestor of all of the organisms shown? A
Which organisms would have the most similar
DNA? The butterfly and dragonfly or spider and
caterpillar? Butterfly and dragonfly
Binomial Nomenclature
• Created by Linnaeus
• Why do we care?
– Allowed scientists to give each organism a
universally accepted two-part name
– In order to avoid confusion
• The first part is the Genus; the second part is
the species
– First letter in Genus is always capitalized
• EX – “Homo sapiens”
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Classifications
Kingdom (most general)
Phylum
Class
King Philip came
Order
over for good
sweets!
Family
Genus
Species (most specific)
If the horse and zebra are in the same
Order, what other classification levels
do they have in common?
Kingdom, Phylum, & Class

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Cell Type: none because
not a cell
Cell wall: not a cell just a
capsid (protein coat)
Body Type: noncellular
Nutrition: N/A
Reproduction: Replication
requiring a host cell
Examples: influenza and
HIV (attacks the immune
system)
Viruses are Highly Specific
 HIV
infects Helper T cells– part of the
immune system.
 Different cold viruses attack the cells lining
the nose and sinuses.
 Antibiotics are not effective against viruses.
 Viruses can cause changes in a cells DNA
which can lead to cancer (uncontrolled cell
growth—mitosis)

Two methods of virus replication
◦ Lytic and Lysogenic
◦ Both result in the host cell being destroyed
and more copies of virus being released

Lytic Replication– virus enters a cell,
makes copies of itself, and causes the
cell to burst relatively quickly
◦ Host cell is lysed and destroyed.
1. Virus attaches
3. New viral proteins and
genetic material are made
2. Virus injects genetic
information into host
4. Viral parts are
assembled
5. New viruses are released as host cell lyses (bursts) and is destroyed.
• Lysogenic Replication–
– Virus integrates its genetic information into the
DNA of the host cell
– Viral genetic information replicates along with the
host cell’s DNA for a relatively long period of time
Vocabulary to remember
• Prokaryote: lacks a nucleus
• Eukaryote: contains a membrane-bound
nucleus
• Unicellular: contains one cell only
• Multicellular: contains two or more cells
• Autotroph: makes its own food
• Heterotroph: must consume food
Kingdom Archaebacteria: Live in
Extreme Habitats
Classification of Living Things
Domain
Archaea
Kingdom
Archaebacteria
Cell Type
Prokaryotic
Cell Structures Cell walls do not
have peptidoglycan
Number of Cells Unicellular
Nutrition
Autotroph or
heterotroph
Examples
Methanogens
Halophiles
Thermophiles
Bacillus infernus lives in deep
sea vents in the ocean –
obtains energy from Earth’s
heat
Kingdom Eubacteria
Classification of Living Things
Domain
Bacteria
Kingdom
Eubacteria
Cell Type
Prokaryotic
Cell Structures Cell walls have
peptidoglycan
Number of Cells Unicellular
Nutrition
Autotroph or
heterotroph
Examples
Streptococcus,
Escherichia coli
:
E. coli bacteria (yellow)
on the head of a needle.
Streptococcus
Kingdom Protista
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•
•
•
•
•
Cell Type: Eukaryotic
Cell wall: Cellulose (some)
Body Type: Unicellular and Multicellular
Nutrition: Autotrophic and Heterotrophic
Are Mobile (can move around)
Examples: paramecium, euglena, algae
What is a Protist?
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Kingdom Protista = “Junk Drawer” Kingdom
Protists are eukaryotes that are not members of the
Kingdoms Plantae, Animalia, or Fungi.
Prefer to live in moist, aquatic conditions
Classified according to their mode of nutrition:
 Heterotrophic (animal-like)
 Autotrophic/Photosynthesis (plant-like)
 External digestion (fungus-like)
Commonly classified As: protozoa, ameoba,
paramecium
Kingdom Fungi
•
•
•
•
•
•
Cell Type: Eukaryotic
Cell wall contains Chitin
Body Type: Unicellular and Multicellular
Nutrition: Heterotrophic
Are Immobile (cannot move around)
Examples: yeast, morel, earthstar puffball, bread
mold (Rhizophus stolonifer), mushrooms
Kingdom Plantae
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•
•
•
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Cell Type: Eukaryotic
Cell wall contains Cellulose
Body Type: Multicellular
Nutrition: Autotrophic
Examples: corn, ferns, roses, pine tree
Kingdom Animalia
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•
•
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Cell Type: Eukaryotic
Nutrition: Heterotrophic
Body Type: Multicellular
Examples: insects, humans, coral, starfish
Importance of bacteria and fungi
•
Bacteria are helpful and
harmful organisms
–
Helpful:
1. Food
2. Clean up oil spills
3. Aids in human digestion
(E. coli) and other life
processes
4. Carry out photosynthesis
5. Decomposers (recycle
nutrients)
6. Fix Nitrogen (bacteria live
on plant roots & turn
nitrogen in air into forms
that plants can use to
make proteins)
• Fungi play an
essential role in
maintaining
equilibrium in nearly
every ecosystem.
– recycle nutrients by
breaking down the
bodies and wastes of
other organisms
Cladograms
•
Show shared derived
characteristics
•
Lungfish, mammals,
birds, and lizards
evolved with
vertebrate and lungs
•
They share these two
derived characteristics
• All living organisms share the same
molecule of DNA (or genetic information)
What is an Animal?
Characteristics of All Animals
1. Animals are Multicellular
2. Animals are Eukaryotic
3. Animals are Heterotrophs
4. No cell wall
Evolutionary/Developmental
Milestones in Animals
1. Cell specialization and levels of
organization. Cells Tissues organs
organ systems organism
2. Development of body symmetry and
segmentation
3. Development of an internal body cavity
and tissue layers
What is homeostasis?
All of the organ systems work
together to keep the body in a
state of HOMEOSTASIS.
Homeostasis is the process by
which an organism maintains a
relatively stable internal
environment.
ANIMAL BODY SYSTEMS
Body systems are all interrelated and work together to perform
their functions in animals. Body systems can be organized and
studies by these functions:
 REGULATION: Excretory & Nervous Systems
 NUTRIENT ABSORPTION: Respiration,
Digestion, & Circulatory Systems
 DEFENSE: Immune, Integumentary, Lymphatic,
Skeletal, & Muscular Systems
 REPRODUCTION: Reproductive & Endocrine
Systems
Animal Systems- Defense! Defense!
 Integumentary System
 Acts as a protective barrier; helps
prevent excess water loss; helps
regulate body temperature (sweating
and shivering).
 Skeletal System
 The skeletal system produces
immune cells (immune system) to
protect against disease causing
bacteria and viruses.
 These immune cells(white blood
cells) are then carried by the
circulatory system for the immune
response when needed.
 The main organs of the skeletal
system are the bones. Bones work
with muscles to move, protect, and
support sensitive internal organs.
Animal Systems- Defense! Defense!
 Muscular System
 main organs of the muscular system are the muscles. There are 3
types of muscles tissue made up of individual muscle cells, called
fibers
 Bones and muscles work in opposing pairs to perform body
movement. Muscles and bones support, protect, and
maintain posture for the human body
 coordinates with the nervous system to respond to
environment.
Immune/ Lymphatic System
 Your skin is your first line of defense. The skin works to
keep pathogens out, then the immune system will attack
pathogens if they get in
Nutrient Absorption
 Digestive
 Breaks down food into nutrients like glucose
 converts food into simpler molecules that can be used by
the cells of the body; absorbs food and eliminates waste
 Circulatory
1. Transports O2 & nutrients (sugars, amino acids, hormones) to
the cells
2. Carries wastes away from cells
 Respiratory
 Takes in oxygen
 Provides O2 to the blood for cellular respiration in
the cells and removes CO2 from the body
 Exchange of gases occurs through the walls of the lungs
Animal Systems-Reproduction
Reproductive
combines genetic information from both parents
(in most animals) to produce new life forms.
This system produces sex cells (gametes),
delivers them, and protects developing fetus
until birth.
Endocrine
regulates long-term changes in the body
such as growth and development
It is made up of glands that release their products
into the bloodstream
Animal Systems-Regulation
Nervous
maintains homeostasis by
controlling and
regulating all other
parts of the body.
Excretory
regulates the
concentration of water
and other components
of body fluids.
Cellular respiration
 What is the equation for Cellular Respiration?
 Glucose + oxygen  carbon dioxide + water + energy/ATP
 What system provides the glucose for this process?
 digestive
 What system provides the oxygen for this process?
 respiratory
 Where in the cell does this process occur?
 mitochondria
Components of blood and their function
 White blood cells
fight off pathogens &
destroy bacteria and
pathogens
Platelets
help clot blood
Red blood cells
contain hemoglobin and
carry oxygen
Plasma
liquid part of blood
Gametes
The female gametes
are called ova/egg
and are released
from the ovaries.
The male gametes
are called sperm and
are produced in the
testes
3 types of Muscles and examples
Skeletal
Skeletal is attached to
bones for movement
Cardiac
cardiac muscle is only
found in the heart
 Smooth
 smooth is found lining the
blood vessels, stomach,
small intestine and
diaphragm
The picture to the
left is represents
the cells of the
nervous system
which are what?
Neuron!
Skeletal Body System Interactions:
 Circulatory System: bones help produce new
blood cells in addition to storing minerals
transported by the circulatory system.
 Muscular System: bones and muscles work in
opposing pairs to perform body movement.
Muscles and bones support, protect, and maintain
posture for the human body.
 Nervous System: bones protect many vital organs
of the nervous system – Skull (brain), Vertebrae
(spinal cord).
Interactions Among Systems to Achieve
Nutrient Absorption
Nutrients are obtained from food
that the digestive system has
broken down. The respiratory
system obtains oxygen from the
atmosphere. These nutrients are
transported by the circulatory
system to cell of the body for
absorption.
The Endocrine system working with other
body systems…
 Nervous System: Hormones provide feedback to the brain
to affect neural processing.
 Reproductive System: hormone production for sexual
development to make offspring
 Muscular and Skeletal System: endocrine system
controls the growth of both bone and muscles
 Immune System: the development is controlled by the
endocrine system
 Digestive System: The endocrine system controls the
rate of metabolism
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Sunlight
Water
Minerals
Gas Exchange
Transport of water and nutrients
throughout the plant body
Remember Photosynthesis:

6H2O + 6CO2 → C6H12O6 + 6O2
(water + carbon dioxide + sunlight  glucose + oxygen)
 Plants
most likely evolved from an organism
like the freshwater multicelluar green algae
living today.
 Plants had to overcome “challenges” as they
moved from water to land:
Adapt to be able to acquire water
 Adapt features to transport water
 Be able to conserve water more efficiently

Vascular vs. Nonvascular
• VASCULAR PLANTS – Contain tube-like cells for
transport
• Can grow large and farther away from water source
• NONVASCULAR PLANTS – Don’t contain tubelike cells for transport
• Water and nutrients travel by diffusion
and osmosis.
• Small and grows close to water source
4 main plant groups:
Nonvascular
• 1. Bryophytes (Mosses and their relatives)
Vascular (Tracheophytes)
• 2. Seedless Vascular (Ferns and their relatives)
• 3. Seeded Vascular
a) Gymnosperms (cone-bearing plants)
b) Angiosperms (flowering plants)
 Same
for both:
 Eukaryotic
 Multicellular
 Need
water for
reproduction
 Moist, shady
habitats
 Reproduce with
spores
 Photosynthetic
 Small
size
 Non-vascular (don’t have water conducting
tissue)
 No true roots, stems, and leaves
 Mosses
 Vascular
 True
roots, stems, and leaves
 Ferns
Seed plants - gymnosperms
• Bear their seeds directly on the surface
of cones.
• Vascular plants
• Gymnosperm means “naked seed”
• Includes conifers such as pines and
spruces
Angiosperms – flowering plants
Reproduce using fruits, nuts, or flowers
#10 Difference between gymnosperms
and angiosperms?
• Gymnosperms reproduce with cones.
• Angiosperms reproduce with fruits and
flowers.
Reproduction of angiosperms
• STAMEN
– MALE PART = ANTHER
THAT PRODUCES POLLEN
AND THE FILAMENT
(STALK THAT SUPPORTS
THE ANTHER)
• CARPEL
– FEMALE PART = STICKY
STIGMA,TUBELIKE STYLE,
AND OVARY WHICH
CONTAINS OVULES WITH
EGGS INSIDE
• The ovary develops into the fruit
• Can be dry (nuts and grains) or Fleshy
(peaches, tomatoes, squash)
• Fruits protect the seeds and aid in dispersal
POLLINATION
Pollination – Transfer of pollen from the
stamen to the pistil.
Methods of Pollination:
1. Wind
2. Animals (most are
pollinated by animals)
Pollination Adaptations That Attract Animals:
1. Nectar
2. Petal Color
3. Scent

Plants have 3 main organs: roots, stems, & leaves
Important Plant Structure Terms
1. Roots-Underground
4. Mesophyll- The
structure that help
part of leaf where
prevent soil erosion
photosynthesis
2. Cuticle- Waxy covering
occurs
on leaves that prevents
5. Xylem- Vascular
water loss
tissue that
3. Guard Cells- Cells that
surround leaf openings
transports water
that control the amount
through the roots,
of transpiration by
stems and leaves
closing during hot or dry
times
Important Plant Structure Terms Continued
6. Root Hairs-Tiny
8. Phloem- Type of
projections that
transport tissue
increase the surface
that transports food
area for the absorption
through the leaves,
of water and nutrients
stems
and
roots
from the soil
9. Transpiration7. Stomata- Opening
Process by which
found in leaves that
water evaporates
allows for gas
exchange and
from the leaves of
transpiration with the
plants
environment
How do plants obtain their energy?
• Photosynthesis:
o 6H2O + 6CO2 → C6H12O6 + 6O2
(water + carbon dioxide + sunlight  glucose + oxygen)
REACTANTS
PRODUCTS
o Carried out by chloroplasts in the leaves
• Plants also carry out cellular respiration:
– Glucose + oxygen  carbon dioxide + water + energy (ATP)
REACTANTS
PRODUCTS
o Carried out by mitochondria in the cells
What Is Ecology?
•
Ecology- is the study of the interactions among
organisms and between the organisms and the
environments in which they live.
(eco means “house”)
.
– Biotic factors – all living things
• Ex. Types of plants, animals, bacteria, fungi, etc.
– Abiotic factors – all non-living things
• Ex. Climate, temperature, amount of rainfall,
humidity, light, wind, soil type, nutrients
available, etc.
Levels of Ecological Organization
(most specific) Species →
Population → Community
→ Ecosystem → Biome → Biosphere (most broad)
Important Ecology Terms
1. Species - Group of organisms so similar
to one another that they can breed
and produce fertile offspring.
2. Population - Groups of individuals that
belong to the same species and live in
the same area.
3. Communities - Assemblages of different
populations that live together in a defined
area.
4. Ecosystems – Collection of all the organisms
that live in a particular place, together with
their nonliving, or physical, environment.
5. Biome -- Group of ecosystems that have the
same climate and similar dominant
communities.
6. Biosphere -- Contains the combined portions
of the planet in which all of life exists,
including land, water, and air, or atmosphere
Energy Flow Through an Ecosystem
Sunlight  Producers  Consumers  Decomposers
Producers: autotrophic organisms that
are able to make own food from a
inorganic substances.
Ex. Plants, algae (phytoplanktonmicroscopic marine plant life)
Consumers:
Sunlight  Producers  Consumers  Decomposers
• Consumers: heterotrophic organisms that get energy
by eating producers and other consumers. (ex. Deer,
hawk, bear)
Herbivores: eat producers
ex. Deer, grasshopper, cow
Carnivores: eat other consumers
ex. Frog, wolf, hawk
Omnivores: eat producers and consumers
ex. Grizzly bear, humans
Level of Consumers:
Primary consumer Secondary consumer3rd, 4th …level consumer
Herbivore
Carnivore
_______________
__________________
Omnivore & decomposers
_______________________ can be 1st,2nd or higher level consumer
Sunlight  Producers  Consumers  Decomposers
Decomposers:
• Obtain energy from the dead and decaying organisms
(recyclers)
•Two Principle Decomposers:
Bacteria and Fungi
Earthworms and termites
(detritivores) also aid in the
breakdown of organic matter,
which replenishes nutrients to the
soil.
Worms
Bacteria
Fungi
Termites
What Do Food Chains and Food Webs
Demonstrate?
• Each step in a food chain or web is called a trophic
level, or a feeding relationship between organisms.
• Both food chains and food webs show the flow of
energy in an ecosystem.
Energy flows from the
leaf to the mouse
Energy flows from
the snake to the
hawk
Food Chains
• Food Chain: one way flow of
energy, illustrates only one
feed relationship
Quaternary
consumers
5th
• Arrows show the flow of
energy and matter
Tertiary consumers
4th
Secondary
consumers
3rd
Primary consumers
2nd
Producers
1st
Food Webs
• Food Web: shows many possible
feeding relationships within an
ecosystem
• What if plants were
removed?
– No energy in system
• What happens to owl
population if foxes are
killed?
– Over populate
When studying the
overall health of an
ecosystem, we study
food webs.
Ecological Pyramids
Pyramid of energyused to illustrate the
amount of usable
energy at each trophic
level
 Only 10% of the
energy available is
passed on to the next
level…
 The other 90% is
given/lost as heat.

Three Types of Symbiotic Relationships
• Mutualism- Both organisms benefit from the
relationship
– Bees and flowers
• Parasitism- One organism benefits, and the other
is harmed (host)
– Ticks (benefits) and deer (harmed)
• Commensalism- One organism benefits, and the
other is neither helped nor harmed
– Barnacles (benefits) and whales (not harmed/nor
helped)
Mutualism
• Both organisms benefit from the relationship.
This bird will eat the insects found
on the zebras’ body. The bird is
high above the ground and has
food, the zebra is removed of
pests.
Bees receive food, while the
flower’s pollen is spread for
reproduction.
Parasitism
• One organism benefits, and the other is
harmed (host).
Ticks feed on the blood of the host in which they live. The
closer together organisms live, the easier these parasites can
spread through the population.
Commensalism
• One organism benefits, and the other is
neither helped nor harmed.
Barnacles live and grow on the bodies of various ocean organisms,
however, they do not cause any harm to them. They do not aid them
in any way, though.
The Carbon Cycle
In photosynthesis, producers
remove CO2 gas from the
atmosphere to make
organic molecules (sugars).
Cellular respiration Animals burn
the food they eat releasing
CO2 gas as a waste product.
Combustion: Burning Fossil
Fuels. When they are
burned, CO2 gas is returned
to the atmosphere and
increases the amount of CO2
gas in the air.
The Nitrogen Cycle
Ecological Succession
• Ecosystems are constantly changing in
response to natural and human disturbances.
• As an ecosystem changes, older inhabitants
gradually die out and new organisms move in,
causing further changes in the community.
– Ecological Succession – Series of predictable
changes that occurs in a community over time
Primary Succession
• Soil starts to form as lichens and the
forces of weather and erosion help break
down rocks into smaller pieces
• When lichens die, they decompose,
adding small amounts of organic matter to
the rock to make soil
What are Lichens?
• Fungus + Algae
• Fungus gets food from the algae
• The algae get water and minerals from fungus
Secondary Succession
• Begins in a place that already has soil and
was once the home of living organisms
• A disturbance of some kind changes an
existing community
• Occurs faster and has different pioneer
species than primary succession
• Example: after forest fires
Go to my website for these slides!
murillobiology.weebly.com/
spring-final-exam.html
Document Titled:
“Spring Final Exam Review Slides”