Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Chapter 12
Emotions, Health, and Stress
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Emotion

Emotion
 Though emotions comprise a significant and crucial part
of our individual and social experience, emotion is an
elusive concept, difficult to define and measure.
 Through scientific research psychologists have learned
much about nature of emotions, but some interesting
and important questions remain unanswered.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
The Crucial Importance of Emotion



It is by no means true that we would make better decisions
if we could keep our emotions in check, despite the pop
culture lore that promotes this idea.
Brain damaged people with impaired emotions are
generally inferior decision-makers.
Emotions are a powerful informer of our decisions, closely
related to motivation, as almost any motivation has an
emotion tied to it.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Module 12.1

The Nature of Emotions
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Measuring Emotions

Like many other constructs in psychology, measuring
emotion poses challenges to psychological scientists. Each
method has its strengths and weaknesses.
 Self-reports are fast and easy but may have
questionable accuracy.
 Behavioral observations; especially of facial
expressions are useful. Although facial emotions can be
suppressed, micro-expressions can be very revealing.
 Physiological measures use autonomic nervous
activity. These are harder to control or suppress,
although their meaning is subject to interpretation.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Excitement and Physiological Arousal

The role of the autonomic nervous system
 The autonomic nervous system is the division that
controls the functioning of the internal organs.
 The ANS has two subdivisions, the sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous systems.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
The Autonomic Nervous System

The sympathetic nervous system
 The sympathetic nervous system is comprised of two
chains of neuron clusters just to the left and right of the
spinal cord.
 It increases the heart rate, breathing rate, production of
sweat, and flow of adrenaline.
 It prepares the body for intense activity, “fight or flight”
and other stress-related behaviors. It is the “crisis
management” center.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
The Autonomic Nervous System

The parasympathetic nervous system
 The parasympathetic nervous system consists of
neurons with axons extending out from the medulla and
the lower spinal cord.
 These axons connect to neuron clusters near the
internal organs.
 The parasympathetic nervous system is the long-term
survival center, promoting rest by decreasing heart rate,
digestion, and other functions that keep an organism
alive in the long-term.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
The Autonomic Nervous System

The two divisions of the ANS
 Both systems are active, and the shifting between the
two systems helps to keep the body in a balanced
condition called homeostasis.
 Emergencies mainly activate the sympathetic nervous
system, but also may involve some parasympathetic
activity (i.e., being frightened causes an individual to
lose bowel or bladder control).
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
The Autonomic Nervous System

The two divisions of the ANS
 We generally cannot directly control autonomic
responses, but we can influence them by voluntary
cognition and behavior, for example, athletes learn to
control breathing and focus their concentration for
improved aim.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Concept Check:
If you ride on the back of your friend’s brand-new highpowered motorcycle, does your heart rate increase or
decrease?
During the ride, your heart rate will increase.
What happens when the ride is over?
When you get off the motorcycle, it will slow down.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Emotion and Perceived Arousal


Which comes first, the psychological experience of emotion
or the physiological arousal?
Common sense dictates that one feels sad and therefore
one cries, one feels happy and so one laughs.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Emotion and Perceived Arousal

The James-Lange theory of emotions
 Two nineteenth century psychologists, working
independently, came up with a different interpretation of
how emotion and physiological reactions are related.
 The James-Lange theory reverses this process.
 The theory states that a person’s interpretation of a
stimulus evokes the autonomic changes directly.
 The psychological experience of emotion is the
individual’s perception of those physiological
changes.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Emotion and Perceived Arousal

The James-Lange theory of emotions
 You decide that you are happy because you are smiling,
sad because you are frowning and tears are forming in
your eyes.
 According to the James-Lange theory, the reactions are
not enough to produce the emotions, but you will not
have the full experience of the emotions without them.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Concept Check:
You arrive at your psychology class and realize that there is a
test today and you completely forgot about it. You feel
nervous and start to sweat. According to the James-Lange
theory, which comes first, the feeling of fear or the sweating?
The sweating
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
The Autonomic Nervous System

Effects of decreased perceived arousal
 Some medical conditions cause people to feel little
physiological arousal.
 In the condition called pure autonomic failure the ANS
stops regulating the internal organs.
 People who suffer from pure autonomic failure recognize
situations that call for strong emotions (fear, elation) but
they report that their emotions are much less intense.
 This is what the James-Lange theory predicts.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Emotion and Perceived Arousal

Schachter and Singer’s theory of emotions
 Another theory proposes that the physiological state is
not the same thing as the emotion.
 According to the Schachter and Singer theory of
emotions, the intensity of the physiological reaction
determines only the intensity of the emotion, not the
type of emotion.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Emotion and Perceived Arousal

Schachter and Singer’s theory of emotions
 It is a person’s cognitive appraisal of the situation that
determines the emotion that we experience.
 Research studies based on the Schachter and Singer
theory leave some unanswered questions about the role
of physiological arousal in contributing to the intensity of
the emotional states.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Figure 12.4 According to the James-Lange theory, physiological arousal determines
the nature of the emotion. According to Schachter and Singer’s theory, physiological
arousal determines the intensity of an emotion, but not which emotion is experienced.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Concept Check:
According to the Schachter-Singer theory, which comes
first, the realization that you forgot about the test, or the
feeling of fear?
The realization (cognitive appraisal)
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
The Range of Emotions

Psychologists have yet to agree on a single list of basic
emotions but they have agreed on a list of criteria for
establishing what a basic emotion should be.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
The Range of Emotions



A basic emotion should emerge early in life without
requiring a great deal of experience.
The basic emotions should be found across cultures.
Each basic emotion should have a unique biological basis
and distinct facial expression.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
The Range of Emotions

Producing facial expressions
 The function of facial expressions in all primates is
communication, especially communication of emotions.
 Facial expression of emotion is much more likely to
occur in the presence of other people.
 Facial expressions of emotion are more likely to
indicate a person’s true internal state than simple
statements and other indicators.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
The Range of Emotions

Producing facial expression
 For example, a voluntary smile, such as the one you
put on for a photographer, only utilizes the mouth
muscles.
 A full, spontaneous smile, or Duchenne smile, also
involves the eye muscles along with the mouth.
 Most people cannot voluntarily produce a Duchenne
smile.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
The Range of Emotions

Understanding facial expressions
 Researchers have found a large amount of evidence that
there is indeed a set of basic emotions.
 Many facial expressions including smiling, frowning,
laughing, and crying occur throughout the world and are
even found in children who were born deaf and blind.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
The Range of Emotions

Understanding facial expressions
 Some of our facial expressions develop in the absence
of opportunities to observe and imitate others.
 There is evidence that the basic emotions consist of
happiness, sadness, fear, disgust, anger and surprise.
 Interpretation of these emotions by facial expression is
done easily and fairly accurately across cultures.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
The Range of Emotions

Understanding facial expressions
 But people also rely on gestures, changes in expression,
and social situation to make more accurate judgments of
others’ emotions.
 People of different world cultures do not necessarily
agree about which internal states are in fact emotions.
 Also, a state that is associated with a recognizable facial
expression is not necessarily an emotion.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Concept Check:
What six states are currently believed to comprise the six
basic emotions?
Happiness
Sadness
Anger
Fear
Disgust
Surprise
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Concept Check:
What is the evidence that these six may be the basic
emotions?
Most people in all cultures recognize the facial expressions associated
with these states.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Emotions and Moral Decisions

If emotions were not informative in some way, we probably
would not have evolved them.
 Emotions may influence our moral decisions.
 Research studies using the Trolley Dilemma and
Footbridge Dilemma, problems that involve making
decisions about letting a small number of people die to
save a larger number of people, have provided evidence
that emotions play a powerful role in deciding the most
moral course of action.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Emotion, Decision-Making, and Emotional
Intelligence



It makes intuitive sense that good decision-making would
require some great degree of emotional control, hence the
familiar advice to remain calm and rational when
contemplating big decisions.
This in fact is not entirely true. Only extreme emotions
interfere with decision-making.
Some degree of emotionality appears to be necessary for
good decision-making.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Emotions and Decision-Making


In fact, a number of case studies of patients with brain
damage suggest that the ability to experience and express
emotions plays a key role in important life and moral
decisions.
The case of Phineas Gage and more recently, Antonio
Damasio’s case study of “Elliot” both provide evidence that
feeling distinctly good or bad is crucial in making decisions
of major importance in our lives so that the best outcome is
achieved.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Concept Check:
A patient experiences a closed head injury, with damage to
the prefrontal cortex. What behavioral and emotional
problems might result from this injury?
Problems with making decisions, expressing and modulating emotions,
tendency to impulsive behavior, reduced ability to accurately interpret the
emotions of other people.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Emotional Intelligence


Emotional intelligence is defined as the ability to perceive,
imagine and understand emotions and to use that
information in decision-making.
The idea of emotional intelligence has gained a great deal
of popularity over the past few decades, in psychology and
related fields.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Emotional Intelligence




The evidence for the existence of a special kind of
intelligence related to emotions is still not too strong
though.
Measuring this construct poses challenges in assessment
that have yet to be well managed.
For example, in constructing items for a test of emotional
intelligence, too often the best answer to a question might
be “it depends.”
Emotional intelligence is an interesting idea, but
researchers still have a long way to go.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Emotions and Decision-Making

The ability to imagine the feeling that we would have
pursuing each option presented to us is a big part of good
decision-making capability.
“Emotions are inseparable from the idea of good and evil.”
-- Antonio Damasio
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Emotions

The debates described in this module may not strike you as
terribly important, but they are part of larger issue of great
importance to the science of psychology.

Human behavior seems to be in large part influenced by
emotions.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Emotions

Just as the first chemists had to struggle to identify the
number and nature of basic elements in order to
understand the way the universe works, so we need to
keep striving to identify the basic emotions and the
relationship of these to human experience and action.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Module 12.2

A Survey of Emotions
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Happiness

It is challenging to measure happiness scientifically,
because unlike the negative emotions, it doesn’t really
cause any obvious behavioral changes (like running away
or attacking).

Most researchers simply ask subjects how happy they think
that they are.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Happiness

Martin Seligman and other psychologists have been
developing a perspective called positive psychology.

Positive psychology is the study of features that enrich life,
such as hope, creativity, courage, spirituality and
responsibility.

These features vary cross-culturally.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Happiness

American researchers have focused on the perception of
subjective well-being.

Subjective well-being is the individual’s assessment of the
degree to which his or her life is pleasant, interesting and
satisfying.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Happiness

When surveyed regarding what conditions would cause an
increase in happiness, most people answered:
 Money
 A good job
 More leisure time
 A boyfriend or girlfriend (or a new one)
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Happiness

Other influences on happiness
 Some factors do correlate well with happiness including:
 Inborn temperament or disposition.
 Marital status (being married seems relate to being
happy).
 Striving towards goals and working for causes.
 Having a religious faith.
 Being healthy.
 Remember that a correlation does not necessarily
indicate a causal relationship. There may be more than
one explanation or direction for the relationships listed
above.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Happiness

How to be a happy person:
 Have happy parents.
 Think about the long term when you make decisions.
 Have strong connections with other people.
 Be involved in activities that are important to you.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Happiness

Wealth
 Researchers (and almost everyone else) are curious
about the degree to which income level influences
happiness.
 This is challenging because it is difficult to measure
happiness, and there are cross-cultural influences and
problems of subjective interpretation – a number used
for a rating by one person may signify a different level to
another person.
 The general conclusion drawn from research so far is
that wealth does not have a large effect on happiness.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Sadness

Sadness is almost always reported to be a reaction to loss.
 Crying is a typical reaction to severe sadness, but as
with all other emotions cultures vary in their attitudes and
norms about crying.
 Crying is usually accompanied by an increase in SNS
activity and a feeling of relief or relaxation afterwards.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Sadness

The possible functions of crying
 However, research suggests that crying may not actually
relieve tension and that those who cry are more likely to
report feelings of depression than those who don’t.
 Crying may function mainly to draw attention and
sympathy.
 The shedding of tears occurs exclusively in humans.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Sadness

“Depressive realism”
 Despite the good press given to a cheerful outlook, it
appears as if those who are sad or mildly depressed
make better decisions than those who are happy and
optimistic.
 They assess their performance, popularity and success
more accurately than happy people.
 They appear to weigh the evidence more carefully and
are more likely to be persuaded by a factual, rational
argument than an emotional one.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Fear and Anxiety

Some researchers are investigating the relationship
between emotions and brain activity.
 There is evidence linking the emotions of fear or anxiety
to the amygdala.
 When the amygdala is damaged, a person’s ability to
experience these feelings may be impaired.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Figure 12.19 Certain structures in the pons and medulla control unlearned fear
reactions, such as a startle response to a sudden unexpected loud sound. Another
structure, the amygdala, sends information to the pons and medulla. Damage to the
amygdala eliminates learned fears but does not affect the automatic startle response
to a loud sound. This drawing is of a human brain, although the relevant experiments
were conducted with rats.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Fear and Anxiety



Damage to the amygdala also diminishes the ability to
recognize the signs of these feelings in other people.
There is also impairment in the ability to recognize anger,
disgust and surprise.
The amygdala may be specialized to process information
relative to several kinds of emotions
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Anxiety, Arousal and Lie Detection

The sympathetic nervous system and lie detection
 Throughout history, humans have been determined to
find a reliable test to determine whether a person is
telling the truth or is lying.
 One of the most frequently used methods involves the
use of a polygraph or “lie detector.”
 A polygraph measures SNS arousal such as blood
pressure, heart rate, respiration and electrical
conduction of the skin in reaction to a series of
questions.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Figure 12.20 The polygraph, a method for detecting nervous arousal, is the basis for the socalled “lie detector” test. The polygraph operator (a) asks a series of non-threatening questions
to establish base-line readings of the subject’s autonomic responses, (b) then asks questions
relevant to an investigation. The underlying assumption is that an increase in arousal indicates
nervousness, which in turn indicates lying. Unfortunately, a large percentage of innocent people
become nervous and therefore appear to be lying.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Anxiety, Arousal and Lie Detection

The sympathetic nervous system and lie detection
 A polygraph is a machine that records several
indications of sympathetic nervous system arousal:
blood pressure, heart rate, respiration, and electrical
conduction of the skin.
 Although the some people will confess simply because
they believe that the polygraph will catch them if they do
not tell the truth.
 Some people are quite capable of regulating reactions
well enough to fool the machine.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Anxiety, Arousal and Lie Detection

The sympathetic nervous system and lie detection
 Although a typical polygraph test procedure does identify
a large number of guilty people, it also misses a
substantial minority and falsely identifies some innocent
people (37% in one study) as guilty.
 The guilty-knowledge test is a variant of the standard
test that produces more accurate results.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Anxiety, Arousal and Lie Detection

The sympathetic nervous system and lie detection
 The interrogator asks about information that would only
be known to someone who had been involved in the
crime. The suspect is expected to show heightened
arousal in response to the correct details.
 Although the guilty knowledge test improves the
accuracy of polygraph use, it is by no means flawless
and can only be used when law enforcement has a great
deal of information about the crime that would not be
known to the general public.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Figure 12.21 Polygraph examiners correctly identified 76% of guilty suspects as lying.
However, they also identified 37% of innocent suspects as lying. (Based on data of
Kleinmuntz & Szucko, 1984)
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Other Methods of Lie Detection



It has been shown that when people lie, they experience
increased blood flow to the face.
A thermal camera can detect this blood flow, without
making contact with the person’s body.
The method appears to work about as well as a polygraph
(which unfortunately is not saying much to recommend it).
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Other Methods of Lie Detection




Psychologist Paul Ekman has developed a fairly good
method based on observation of facial expressions.
His research suggests that people who are trying to keep a
happy or “straight” face still make very subtle, quick facial
expressions of negative emotion when trying to lie.
He calls these movements “microexpressions.”
With good training, this method can be more effectively
used than polygraphs but it still may fail when one is
dealing with confident or experienced liars.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Concept Check:
List the various methods of lie detection.
Standard polygraph
Guilty knowledge
Thermal camera
Microexpressions
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Concept check:
List some of the objections to standard methods of lie
detection.
Not perfectly reliable or valid
People can learn to “fake truthfulness” or “fake good”
Guilty knowledge requires police to have much inside knowledge of
crime
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Anger and Violence
“The struggle to understand violence is among the most
important goals facing humanity in general, and psychology in
particular.”
-- James W. Kalat
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Situations with Violence

Frustration and aggression
 The frustration-aggression hypothesis is the idea long
held by psychologists that a failure to obtain a desired or
expected goal leads to aggressive behavior.
 This hypothesis has some limitations in explaining
aggressive behavior.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Situations with Violence

Frustration and aggression
 The experience of anger and potential for aggression
depends on an attribution of intention on the part of the
person causing the frustration.
 The fact that frustration leads to anger does not
necessitate that the anger will lead to aggression.
 Frustration appears to play a role only in emotional
aggression, not in the more calm aggressive behaviors
that people learn as strategies for getting what they
want.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Situations with Violence

Frustration and aggression
 More recently, researchers have proposed that any
unpleasant event provokes a fight or flight reaction.
Whether aggression results from the event depends on a
variety of factors.
 The likelihood of violence resulting from frustration is
particularly high in a sexual context. One of the most
common causes of murder is sexual jealousy.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Situations with Violence

After violence: reconciliation
 Reconciliation after outbursts of anger and aggression
are vital in species that live in social groups.
 After reconciliation, the individuals who fought are less
likely to fight again.
 Conciliatory behaviors have been observed in wolves,
monkeys, chimpanzees and humans.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Characteristics of Violent People


For a long time, psychologists assumed that violence was a
result of the perpetrator’s low self-esteem.
More recent research shows little or no relationship
between violence and low self-esteem.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Characteristics of Violent People


In many professional contexts, psychologists are asked to
predict who will be violent, and how violent they might be.
So what factors are good predictors of violent behavior?
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Characteristics of Violent People



One challenge in this effort is the fact that violent acts, even
in a person with a history, are sporadic and situationdependent.
The best predictor of future violent behavior, in general, is
past violent behavior.
A person with a long history of violence, dating back to
childhood, is more likely to re-offend than a person who has
committed a single or isolated violent act.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Characteristics of Violent People

Some other factors that have been linked to violent
tendencies are:
 Having been physically abused as a child
 Having witnessed violence between one’s parents
 Use of alcohol or drugs
 History of impulsive acts
 Growing up in a violent neighborhood
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Characteristics of Violent People






Lack of remorse after hurting someone
Weaker than average level of physiological response to
arousal
Smaller than average prefrontal cortex
Decreased release of serotonin in the prefrontal cortex
History of suicide attempts
Preference for violent television programming
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Characteristics of Violent People



Men are more violent in general than women.
Young men (in their late teens and early twenties) are more
likely to commit acts of violence.
Correlational research suggests a link between a male’s
tendency to violence and his mother’s smoking during his
prenatal development, but the nature of this relationship
has yet to be determined (again, remember the importance
of caution in interpreting correlational data).
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Concept Check:
When all the evidence is examined, the best predictor of
future violent behavior is…
Past violent behavior
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Concept Check:
Name some other factors that have been associated with
tendencies
towards violent behavior.
Childhood abuse and exposure to domestic violence/violent neighborhood
Drug and alcohol use
History of impulsive behavior
History of suicide attempts
Various biological factors
Diagnosis of Antisocial Personality Disorder
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Sexual Violence



Violence is most likely to occur between people who know
each other well.
Married and dating couples usually know each other well.
When violence is defined very broadly, women can be just
as violent as men, if not more so, according to some
studies.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Sexual Violence


But when violence is defined narrowly and only serious and
injurious attacks are included, then men commit far more of
this type of violence, and are far more likely to seriously
injure or kill their partners.
Men who commit serious acts of this nature are generally
those who are prone to criminal and violent behavior
towards other people as well.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Sexual Violence

Rape
 Rape is defined as sexual contact obtained through
violence, coercion, or threats.
 In practice, rape is defined on a continuum that
ranges from forcible rape to a refusal to respect
ambiguous resistance.
 Verbal coaxing can sometimes result in a woman
having unwanted sex.
 Men are encouraged to disregard women’s refusals
as part of a “script” for negotiating sexual relations.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Sexual Violence

Rape
“Preventing date rape is partly a matter of persuading men
to respect a woman’s refusal and partly a matter of
advising women to express their refusal emphatically.”
--James W. Kalat
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Sexual Violence

Rape
 What kind of men commit rape?
 The best available evidence suggests that most
perpetrators of sexual violence have a history of
hostility and aggression towards women and men.
 Other factors (history of childhood abuse, expression
of anger towards women in particular) have a weaker
relationship with acts of sexual violence.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Controlling Violence


We like to believe that people are fundamentally good, and
that violence and cruelty result from social problems that
can be corrected: poverty, injustice, ignorance, and low selfesteem.
But social improvements only remove some of the problem.
There have been and are violent individuals who have
experienced none of these difficulties.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Controlling Violence



Harsh punishments are probably not the answer. Children
do need guidance and supervision, and consequences that
are quick, certain, and logical.
People can be taught at any age to handle frustration more
effectively and to learn non-violent ways to negotiate for the
things that they want. Anger management training is
sometimes used effectively for this purpose.
There are a variety of interventions and techniques
available for reducing the amount of violence in our society.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Other Emotions




Surprise is usually listed as a basic emotion by most
psychologists but little research has been done related to it.
Disgust is an emotional reaction that appears to derive
from the reaction one would have if one discovered that
contaminated matter was in one’s mouth.
Contempt is based upon a reaction to violation of
community standards.
Embarrassment, guilt, shame and pride are related “selfconscious” emotions based on our view of how people
regard us and our actions.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Module 12.3

Stress, Coping and Health
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Health Psychology

Health psychology examines how people’s behavior can
improve health and prevent illness, and how human
behavior influences the course of recovery from illness.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Health Psychology

Stress
 Selye’s Concept of Stress
 An enormous variety of experiences can cause
stress.
 The physician Hans Selye defined stress as “the
nonspecific response of the body to any demand
made upon it.”
 Selye’s definition emphasizes the role that changes in
one’s life play in causing stress, and so it does not
fully consider the effects of more chronic problems
such as poverty or discrimination.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Health Psychology

Selye’s concept of stress
 Selye proposed that the body responds to stress in three
distinct stages:
 Alarm – a brief period of high arousal of the
sympathetic nervous system, which readies the body
for vigorous activity.
 Resistance – if the stressor goes on for longer than a
few minutes, the body enters a phase of prolonged
but moderate arousal.
 Exhaustion – intense and long-lasting stress causes
a depletion of proteins in the immune system. The
end result is increased vulnerability to illness, fatigue,
and weakness.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Concept Check:
According to Selye’s definition of stress, is going away to
college stressful?
Yes
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Concept Check:
According to Selye’s definition of stress, would remaining in an
unhappy marriage of over 30 years’ duration be stressful?
No
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

A prolonged period of anxiety and depression following the
experience of an extremely stressful event is known as
posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
 This disorder has been well-documented in war veterans
and those who have survived violent crimes and serious
accidents.
 Some people who endure these events do not suffer
PTSD, so the causes of this disorder are still not fully
understood.
 People with PTSD suffer from nightmares, emotional
outbursts, guilt, and flashbacks that may cause
debilitating panic.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Measuring Stress

Life is inherently stressful. How much stress is detrimental
to one’s health?
 In order to answer this question, psychologists need to
measure both stress and health.
 Both of these conditions are difficult to measure.
 Checklists that have been devised for this purpose have
been found to have low reliability and validity.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Measuring Stress



A given event will have different meanings to different
people, depending on the circumstances.
A lost job is unlikely to be more than a minor annoyance to
a 16-year-old fast-food worker who still lives at home.
Because of these difficulties in measuring stress according
to Selye’s definition, psychologist Arnold Lazarus devised a
different perspective on it.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Measuring Stress



According to Lazarus, a stressful situation is one that a
person regards as threatening and possibly exceeding his
or her resources.
Thus, divorce could be a major life stressor for an
abandoned spouse with several children, but perhaps an
easier (though probably not stress-free) transition for a
childless couple in their 20’s who are more or less in
agreement about the decision to end the marriage.
Lazarus’ view also suggests that people can learn to think
differently and deal with events actively instead of feeling
threatened by them.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Figure 12.24 Lazarus stated that evaluation of some kind, conscious or unconscious,
always precedes emotion. Thus, a given event can be highly stressful for one person
yet only slightly stressful or not at all for someone else.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Measuring Stress

To summarize, in Lazarus’ view the degree of stressfulness
of any event depends upon:
 Our interpretation of the event
 Our reaction to it
 The nature of the other events in our lives
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Measuring Stress


The most accurate way to measure stress would be through
a careful and detailed interview to assess all the possible
stressors and positive aspects in an individual’s life.
Stress research is difficult to do well, but researchers are
able to identify the types of experiences that endanger
health.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Concept Check:
16-year-old Brenda has broken up with her boyfriend, lost her
job as a cashier at Burger Tyrant, and been kicked off the
varsity girl’s soccer team. Yet she scores in the mild stress
range on the stress checklist that her guidance counselor
administered to her yesterday. What are some possible
interpretations of these facts?
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Concept Check:
Although it is possible the Brenda is showing signs of an
emotional problem or drug use (or both), it is also possible
that her feelings towards her boyfriend had changed, that
she hated her job at restaurant, and that she disliked
playing soccer but was doing so to please her parents (for
example).
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Coping Styles and Strategies

Psychologists have developed two major categories for
classifying how people handle their stress.
 Monitoring – the style in which people attend carefully
to the stressful event and try to take effective action.
 Blunting – the style adopted by those who try to avoid
the stressful event or avoid thinking about it.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Coping Styles and Strategies



People tend to prefer one style to the other, but the most
effective strategy depends on the nature of the stressor.
If you are experiencing stress due to an upcoming
psychology test, a monitoring strategy of taking effective
action is probably warranted. Form a study group and hit
the books!
If you are caught in a major traffic tie-up, blunting is
probably a better tack, as there is really nothing you can do
about your situation. Turn on the radio and chill out.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Coping Styles and Strategies

Monitoring strategies
 The importance of predictability and control
 When we are engaged in an activity voluntarily, we
usually know what to expect and how to change what
we are doing or quit if necessary.
 The ability to predict how things will unfold makes the
activity or event less stressful.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Coping Styles and Strategies

Monitoring strategies
 Nursing home residents and hospital patients who told
what to expect and given a chance to state preferences
about their care report feeling better while under care
and tend to live longer.
 Rehearsing or visualizing a process can be an effective
way to prepare for a demanding or stressful event.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Coping Styles and Strategies

Monitoring strategies
 Inoculation is another word for receiving a vaccine.
 Inoculation places a small amount of weakened or dead
germs into a person’s body.
 The amount of disease bearing material is not enough to
make the person sick, but it does produce an immune
reaction. In some cases, the protection lasts a lifetime.
 To inoculate yourself against stress is to expose
yourself to small amounts or less serious versions of the
event prior to encountering the actual stressor.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Coping Styles and Strategies

Social support
 Just talking about an experience with someone you trust
can be a great relief.
 Talking with any sympathetic and supportive person
can be useful.
 It is particularly helpful to talk with others who are
having or have had similar problems.
 Giving support can be even more stress-reducing
than receiving it.
 Many well-known social organizations and self-help
groups, such as Alcoholics Anonymous and
Compassionate Friends (for parents of children who
have been murdered) provide these services for the
public.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Coping Styles and Strategies

Beliefs as coping strategies
 Sometimes it appears that a simple cognitive re-framing
or a version of the “personal fable” may have a
protective effect on stress.
 Seeming rationalizations and distortions such as
“looking at the bright side” and playing up one’s
strengths while disregarding flaws and weaknesses
can be useful in reducing the negative effects of
stress.
 In one study, men with HIV who seemed to be in
denial about the seriousness of their problem actually
survived longer than those who acknowledged it.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Coping Styles and Strategies

Blunting strategies
 Blunting strategies are most useful when the stressor
cannot be avoided.
 Blunting strategies attempt to manage the reaction to
the stressor rather than take action in response to it.
 Relaxation, exercise and distraction are common
blunting strategies.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Coping Styles and Strategies

Blunting strategies
 Relaxation techniques range from simply finding some
quiet time to relax physically and mentally to various
organized mediation practices.
 Although exercise arouses the sympathetic nervous
system in the short-term, in the long-term seems to have
an inoculating effect on those who engage in it regularly.
 Distraction is similar to hypnosis in that it can reduce
concentration on the unpleasant stimulus by replacing it
with a different focus of attention.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Are Coping Techniques Effective?


These strategies work well for many people, but there is a
trade-off.
It takes energy to find ways to endure and cope with stress
- energy that might have been available for other, more
pleasurable or rewarding pursuits.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Are Coping Techniques Effective?

These techniques do offer a substantial possibility for
people who experience stress to find strength and positive
aspects in negative life events, and for other people to be
inspired and to learn from these experiences.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Stress and Psychosomatic Illness

A psychosomatic illness is not an imagined or feigned
illness.
 It is an illness that is influenced by someone’s
experiences – particularly stressful experiences – or by
his or her reactions those experiences.
 Something about the person’s lifestyle or behavior has
influenced the onset or progression of the illness.
 It is probably true that most illnesses are psychosomatic
to some extent.
 “It’s all in your head!”
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Stress and Psychosomatic Illness



It is probably not the case that emotions or stress lead
directly to illness.
Rather, negative emotion and great stress may influence an
individual to engage in risky behavior or self-neglect.
“Curses” and “hexes” may also work in this way, by
influencing a person’s beliefs and emotional state, leading
to deterioration of health.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Stress and Psychosomatic Illness

Heart disease
 In the 1970’s a physician hypothesized a link between
an impatient, success-driven personality and heart
disease.
 Type A personality describes a highly competitive,
impatient, hurried person who typically has an angry
and hostile temperament.
 Type B personality designates those who are
easygoing, less hurried and less hostile.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Stress and Psychosomatic Illness

Heart disease
 There does seem to be a link between a hostile
disposition and heart disease.
 But genetics, diet, exercise and other factors have a
stronger influence than personality factors or emotional
tendencies.
 Culture also dictates pace of life, diet, and other lifestyle
factors that would relate to heart disease.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Stress and Psychosomatic Illness

Cancer
 Behavior influences the onset and spread of cancer
indirectly.
 Fear or anxiety can prevent people from taking
preventative steps such as performing selfexaminations.
 Emotional states and stress may lead to impairment
of the immune system so that a greater risk of certain
types of cancer will occur.
 The two states that are most likely to do so are
depression and stress.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Stress and Psychosomatic Illness

Cancer
 Still research suggests that emotional factors are far less
important in contributing to cancer than exposure to
toxins, genetic factors, and lifestyle factors.
 Psychological factors play a role in how people behave
after they learn of their condition.
 The more support cancer patients receive, the more
positive steps they take on their own behalves; the better
their quality of life and chance of recovery will be.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Healing: The Psychological and The Somatic



Psychological factors are just one aspect of health.
Healthy diet, regular exercise, avoidance of drugs and
alcohol, regular doctor examinations will all improve one’s
chances of a long and healthy life.
Controlling negative emotions on reducing stress will likely
decrease the chance of heart disease.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 12: Emotions, Health, and Stress
Healing: The Psychological and The Somatic


But we cannot overestimate the impact of behavioral and
psychological factors, either.
One should not feel guilty if one eventually develops heart
disease or cancer anyway, because many of the physical
causes of these diseases (genes, accidental exposure to
toxins) are beyond one’s control.