Mrs. Paulgaard
Science 10:
Notes & Diagrams
Science 10 Lab Skills:
WHO KILLED MR. XAVIER?
You are private detectives who have been hired to investigate the death of a wealthy but
eccentric Mr. Xavier, a man who was well known for his riches and for his reclusive nature. He
avoided being around others, because he was always filled with anxiety and startled easily. He
also suffered from paranoia, and he would fire servants he had employed for a long time because
he feared they were secretly plotting against him. He would also eat the same meal for dinner
every night, two steaks cooked rare and two baked potatoes with sour cream.
Upon arriving at the tragic scene, you are told that Mr. Xavier was found dead in his
home early this morning by the servants. The previous evening after the chef had prepared the
usual dinner for Mr. Xavier, the servants had been dismissed early so they could avoid going
home during last night’s terrible storm. When they returned in the morning, Mr. Xavier’s body
was found face down in the dining room.
Looking into the room, you start our investigation. The large window in the dining room
has been shattered and appears to have been smashed open from the outside. The body
exhibits laceration wounds and lies face down by the table, and there is a large red stain on the
carpet that emanates from under the body. An open bottle of red wine and a partially eaten steak
still remain on the table. A chair that has been tipped over is next to the body, and under the
table is a knife with blood on it.
Based on these preliminary observations, please provide as much evidence as you can
to support each conclusion you make.
Scientific Method:
It is a process that is used to find out answers to questions regarding the world around us. It
involves many different versions however, they all begin with the identification of the problem or
question to be answered based on observations and then, they provide an organized method for
conducting and analyzing an experiment.
Science Lab Report Format
All lab reports should follow the following sequence:
Problem:
This is usually stated as a question or a problem that is the main focus of the lab.
Ex: What is the effect of gravity on the stems and roots of bean plants?
Variables:
 Controlled: this variable remains constant, stays the same, throughout the experiment. It
has no effect on the results and tends to be environmental conditions and/or measuring
materials used.
Ex: bean plants, soil type, elastics, ring stands, etc.

Manipulated: this variable is what one is testing or comparing. It is pre-selected and
determined by the teacher. It is usually stated in the question. (Independent Variable)
Ex: Seeds planted in a container that is right-side up, covered in cheesecloth,
and up-side down.

Responding: this variable is the result of the experiment. It is what one records in the
observations and is the answer to the problem. (Dependent Variable)
Ex: the direction the roots and stems grow.
Hypothesis:
One forms a guess that is educated or backed by scientific concepts to answer the original
problem.
Ex: Gravity has no effect on the roots and stems of bean plants.
Materials:
The materials needed to complete the lab are included here.
Ex: 3 bean plants per group
2 ring stands
Masking tape
Cheesecloth
Elastics
Procedures:
A detailed step by step procedure is written down. One should copy out the procedure out or
summarize the procedure so that he or she can understand what to do during the lab.
Ex:
1. Obtain 3 bean plants, masking tape, ring stands, and pieces of cheesecloth from the
teacher.
2. Cut a hole in each cheesecloth and cover the two plants with the stems sticking out of the
hole. Fasten with an elastic.
3. Label the first plant A, the second B, and the third C.
4. Leave plant A as is since it will be the comparison.
5. Mount plant B into one of the ring stands so that it is horizontal.
6. Mount plant C into the other ring stand so that it is hanging upside down.
7. Leave all three plants until the next class.
8. Record all observations for all three plants in a chart.
Observations:
This is where all measurements, observations, and other data are recorded. Results should be
reported in the form of charts, tables, and/or point form.
Time (hours)
1
2
3
4
Length of Roots (mm)
0.1
0.7
1.5
2.3
Height of Stems (mm)
0.1
0.8
1.9
3.0
Analysis:
Application questions are listed here and answered in complete sentences. Graphs will also be
included in this section and should include all of the following components:
 Title for the graph
 Titles for each axes
 Legend if there is more than two lines or bars
 Scales for each axes (ex: 1 square = 5 mm)
 Data plotted
 Consistent intervals along the axis.
Length (1sq = 1 mm)
The Length of Roots and Stems and
Gravity
8
7
6
5
Stem Growth
Length (mm)
4
3
2
1
0
Root Growth
Length (mm)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (1sq = 1 hour)
Conclusion:
This section is where one rejects or accepts the hypothesis stated at the beginning. Also, one
needs to answer the original problem and support their answer with data or trends from the data.
Ex: The roots of plants B and C grew down towards the center of gravity just as plant A. Also, the
stems of all three plants consistently grew away from the center of gravity. So, roots will always
grow towards the center of gravity, while stems grow away from the center of gravity.
Errors:
List here mistakes made in measuring, understanding, and/or procedure that could affect the
results recorded.
Ex: the bean plants were different sizes and could have affected the amount of growth.
Note: deductions will be made for components being out of order (-1), messy (-1), and
pronouns (-1/2 per pronoun)
SpongeBob Square Pants
Lab Equipment and Safety:
1. Never eat, drink, or smoke while working in the laboratory.
2. Read labels carefully.
3. Do not use any equipment unless you are trained and approved as a user
by your supervisor.
4. Wear safety glasses or face shields when working with hazardous
materials and/or equipment.
5. Clothing: When handling dangerous substances, wear gloves, laboratory
coats, and safety shield or glasses. Shorts and sandals should not be
worn in the lab at any time. Shoes are required when working in the
machine shops.
6. If you have long hair or loose clothes, make sure it is tied back or
confined.
7. Keep the work area clear of all materials except those needed for your
work. Coats should be hung in the hall or placed in a locker. Extra books,
purses, etc. should be kept away from equipment that requires air flow or
ventilation to prevent overheating.
8. Disposal - Students are responsible for the proper disposal of used
material if any in appropriate containers.
9. Equipment Failure - If a piece of equipment fails while being used, report it
immediately to your lab assistant or tutor. Never try to fix the problem
yourself because you could harm yourself and others.
10. Never pipette anything by mouth.
11. Clean up your work area before leaving.
12. Wash hands before leaving the lab and before eating.
Significant Digits and Data Manipulation:
Significant Digits:
1. For all non-logarithmic values, regardless of decimal point, any of the digits 1 to 9 is a
significant digit; 0 may be significant:
123
0.123
0.00230
2.30 x 10³
All have 3 significant digits
2.03
2. Leading zeros are not significant:
0.12 and 0.012 each have two significant digits
3. All trailing zeros are significant:
200 has three significant digits
0.12300 and 20.000 each have five significant digits
4. For logarithmic values such as pH, any digit to the left of the decimal is not significant:
A pH of 1.23 has two significant digits
A pH of 7 has no significant digits
Give the number of significant digits in each of the following measurements:
1278.50
__________
8.002
__________
43.050 __________
Rounding:
1. When the first digit dropped is less than or equal to 4, the last digit retained is not
changed:
1.2345 rounded to three digits is 1.23
2. When the first digit dropped is greater than or equal to 5, the last digit retained is
increased by one:
12.25 rounded to three digits is 12.3
Round off the following numbers to three significant digits:
120000 _______________
4.53619
_______________
Data Manipulation:
1. When adding or subtracting measurements, the answer should be rounded to the same
degree of precision as that of the least precise number.
12.3 + 0.12 + 12.34 = 24.76,
the answer should be rounded to 24.8 (least precise)
2. When multiplying or dividing measurements, the answer should be rounded to the same
number of significant digits as the least precise number.
1.23 x 54.321 = 66.81483
The answer should be rounded to 66.8
3. When a series of calculations is performed, do not round until the very end. The final
answer should have the same number of significant digits as are contained in the quantity
in the original date with the fewest number of significant digits.
(1.23)(4.321) / (3.45-3.21)
a) (1.23)(4.321) = 5.31483
b) 3.45 –3.21 = 0.24
c) 5.31483 / 0.24 = 22.145125
The value should be rounded to 22.1
Perform the following operations giving the proper number of significant figures in the answer:
23.4 x 14
____________ 0.005 - 0.0007 _______________
7.895 + 3.4
_______________
0.0945 x 1.47 _____________
7.895 /34_______________
0.2 /0.0005
_______________
(8.71 x 0.0301)/0.056 = ________________
Unit 1: Matter and Energy in Chemical Change
Matter: anything that occupies space (volume) and contains mass.
Classification of Matter:
Matter
Physical
Properties
Solid
Chemical
Properties
Gas
Pure
Substances
Mixtures
Liquid
Homogeneous
Heterogeneous
Elements
Metal
Metalloid
Non- Metal
Noble
Gas
Compounds
Inorganic
Properties of Matter:
Matter: anything that contains mass and takes up space or volume.
 Physical Properties:
o Conditions that can be observed without changing the substance into a different
substance.
o Quantitative: measurable
 Ex:
o

Qualitative: observable
 Ex:
Chemical Properties:
o Properties that describe how one substance reacts with others.
 Ex:
o
o
Non-Reactive elements: rarely take part in chemical reactions
 Ex: inert elements, neon
Reactive elements: take part in chemical reactions
 Ex: Radium, Barium, Hydrogen
Organic
Mixture: a combination of 2 or more different pure substances where the properties can vary
depending on the quantities of the substances.

Mechanical (Heterogeneous) Mixture: a mixture in which the different substances
are visible. e.g., soil

Solution (Homogeneous): a mixture in which the different substances are not
visible. e.g., salt in water
Pure Substance: made of only one kind of matter and has a unique set of properties (chemical
and physical). e.g., mercury (element) and sugar (compound).

Element: a substance that cannot be broken down any further by a chemical reaction
into any simpler substance.
 pure substances that contain a single kind of atom
 Each element differs from the others because it has distinct physical and
chemical properties
 Ex: helium, oxygen, carbon.

Molecular elements: elements that naturally occur in combinations of 2-3 atoms.
Ex: I2 H2, N2, Br2, O2, Cl2, F2, P4, S8

Compound: when two or more elements are chemically combined together.
o They can’t be separated by ordinary physical means
o Fixed ratio of elements/never change
o Ex: water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2).
Chemicals should be treated with respect:
 Environmental problems
 Heath problems (excessive use of alcohol and nicotine).
 DDT (food chains & malaria come back), mercury poisoning in fish, CFCs
WHMIS:
 Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System is a guideline for handling, storing,
and disposing of reactive materials.
 Each product must have labels in English and French, Material Safety Data Sheet
(MSDS), and workers need to complete an education program.
The Evolution of Atomic Models
 Dalton/Solid Sphere Model
o All matter is made up of small particles of matter called atoms.
o Atoms could not be divided, created, or destroyed.
o Atoms of an element are the exact same in mass and size. Atoms differ in size
between elements.
o Compounds are formed when atoms combine in fixed proportions.
o Chemical reactions change the way atoms are grouped but atoms are not
changed.

Thomson/Plum Pudding Model
o Most of the atom consisted of one large positive charge and small negative
charges embedded that balances out the charges.

Rutherford/Nuclear Model
o Atom contained a positive central core which made up all of the mass.
o Negative electrons were distributed around the core.

Bohr Model
o Structural features of the atom.
o Energy exists in small units called quanta.
o Electrons have fixed amounts of energy and move in circular pathways at fixed
distances from the nucleus.

de Broglie: Electron Cloud Model
o Electrons have distinct energy levels but the locations are not defined.
All these theories and models combined to form the Modern Atomic Theory
Modern Atomic Theory
o tiny nucleus containing (+) protons & neutral neutrons
o (-) electrons occupying large space
o nucleus mass almost = the total mass of atom
o atom is electrically neural b/c # protons = # electrons
Atomic Structure Defines the Characteristics of an Element
 Three sub-atomic particles which have consistent masses and charges
 Elements differ in the number of protons
Protons:



Positive charges
Atomic Number is the number of protons
1 Atomic Mass Unit (AMU) = 1.67 x 10 (-24)
Neutrons:
 Neutral Charge
 1 AMU mass
 Protons don’t change therefore the atomic number remains the same as well as the
element.
 Neutrons vary within atoms of the same element which is the reason for variation in
atomic mass.
 Isotopes are elements that have the same atomic number but different atomic
masses.
 Ex. Carbon 14 vs. Carbon 16

Periodic table’s atomic mass is the average mass for all isotopes.
Atomic Masses:
Ex: Carbon =12.01 AMU, 6 AMU proton and 6.01 AMU neutron
Neon = 20 AMU
Argon = 36 AMU
Electrons:
 Negative charges
 Mass is so very small that it doesn’t affect the total mass of the atom
 Electrons are located in energy levels and the level number depends on # of electrons
 Electrons are lazy (want to stay close to the nucleus/less energy need)
o electrons gain energy (heated) they may jump into next level
o once electron emits this energy, falls back down
o electrons move b/w energy levels by losing or gaining energy (usually that is a
specific amount of energy)
o electrons can’t exist in-between levels
Atoms:
 Atoms have nucleus and electron energy levels.
o 1st level - 2 electrons
o 2nd level - 8 electrons
o 3rd level - 8 electrons
o 4th level – 18 electrons
o
Atoms tend towards stability
The Periodic Table:
 Provides information about the properties of elements and its structure.

Periods or Horizontal Rows (7)
o # of energy levels
o reactive properties of elements gradually or periodically change from left to right
o two series at the bottom: convince, same properties

Vertical Groups (families 1-18)
o # of valence electrons (electrons outer layer)
o families have similar chemical properties/different intensity
 Group 1: Alkali metals (Very reactive metals)
 Group 17: Halogens (Most reactive non-metal)
 Group 18: Noble gases (unreactive)
 Metal Reactivity increases top to bottom (groups 1 - 2 only)
 Non-metal Reactivity decrease top to bottom (17-18 only)

Staircase line:
line that separates metals (L) from non-metals (R)
o Properties of Metals (75% of elements on earth)
 Ductility: the ability to draw into a thin, flexible metal thread or wire.
 Malleability: the ability to be hammered into shape without breaking.
 strength, hardness, durability, ductility, and malleability, lustrous,
reactive
 good conductors of heat and electricity
 Vitamins-metals are important for living organisms (potassium -plants &
animals)
 Alloys: mixtures or solutions of metals
o
Properties of Non-Metals
 lack the properties of metals
 Nitrogen, phosphorus, oxygen are examples...
o
Metalloids: the elements B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te, & Po exhibit both metallic and
non-metallic properties.
 Poor conductors of heat, can conduct electricity
Compounds: Combination of 2 or more elements.
 Two forms of compounds: molecular (covalent) and ionic
Molecular Compounds
Bonds are created by the sharing of electron
Low melting point
Not always form crystals
Formed from only non-metallic elements
Does not form ions in solution
Does not conduct electricity when dissolved in
water
Solid, liquid, or gas at room temperature.
Ionic Compounds
Bonds are created by the transfer of electrons
High melting point
Distinct crystal shape
Formed from metallic and non-metallic elements
Forms ions in solution
Conducts electricity when dissolved in water
Solid at room temperature
Atoms of elements (neutral): the number of protons and electrons are the same.
 # of electrons can change b/c they are free to move
 atoms want to have a full outer energy level
o -gain (non-metals) or lose
o -share electrons
Ex:
Ions: Atoms or groups of atoms that have lost/gained electrons
o -Atoms lose an electron = + charge (more protons than electrons)
o -Atoms gain an electron = - charge (more electrons than protons)
o -Atoms can lose or gained more than one electron = shown by number with the
charge
Ex:
Types of Ions:
o -Monoatomic ions: simple ions
 ions formed from atoms of an element
 examples: F- or Fe 2+
o -Polyatomic ions: complex
 ions made of a groups of atoms acting as an unit
 as an unit they will lose or gain electrons
 charge is shared
 Ex: NH4+
Ionic Bonds:
o Ions bond by transferring electrons to form ionic compounds
o Ex: NaCl
Transfer and Attraction
o
Force that holds 2 opposing charged ions together (+ -)
o Ions with different charges (strongly attracted)
o Ions with similar charges (strongly repelled)
o
Characteristics:
o involve the transfer of electrons
o involve a change in energy (add/remove electrons)
o form between metallic and non-metallic elements
o solid at room temperature
o conducts electricity
Lattice - How ions arrange themselves to become stable
o
Nomenclature: Writing an ionic compound
 compound does not carry a charge
 sum of the charges must be zero
 Ex:
Al 3+
Al
Cl -
Al 3+
Cl
Al
AlCl3
O2-
O
Al2O3
Naming Binary (2 elements) Ionic Compound
#1. Name includes both elements in compound
#2. Metal element appears first
#3. Non-metal element appears last and has its ending
changed to -ide
#4. Name of compound doesn’t mention the number of ions
#5. Name is not capitalized
Ex:
Na+
+
Cl-

NaCl
sodium chloride
Ionic Compound’s Chemical Formulas
#1. Symbol for metallic ion is first
#2. Symbol for non-metallic ion is second
#3. Subscripts indicate the ratio of ions in compound
Ex:
sodium chloride
Na+ + Cl-

NaCl

CaCl2 ratio 1 to 2
ratio 1 to 1
calcium chloride
Ca2+ + Cl-
Remember that ionic compounds must be neutral
(total # of + = # of -)
Naming Ionic compounds with 2 or more charges.
 -Usually involves transitional metals.
#1. Rules are the same as ionic compounds with 1 charge
#2. Use a roman numeral to show which one is being used.
Ex:
Cl- + Cu+
 CuCl
copper (I) chloride
Cl- + Cu2+
 CuCl2
copper (II) chloride
Polyatomic Ionic Compound Chemical Formulas
#1. Surround the polyatomic ion with parentheses
#2. Use subscript to indicate the required number of units
Ex:
magnesium hydroxide
Mg2+
OH-
Mg(OH)2
aluminum sulfate
Al3+
SO42-
Al2(SO4)3
Naming Polyatomic Ionic Compound
o Same as binary ionic compounds
Ex:
beryllium carbonate
Be2+ CO32Be2(CO3)2
BeCO3
Ionic Solubility:
o Some ions react in solution (usually water) & produce solid ionic compounds (precipitate)
Ex:
Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq)  AgCl(s)
o
To see if an ionic compound will be solid look at “Solubility of Ionic Compounds in Water”
on the Periodic Table
o
o
o
(-) ion on top
(+) ion on bottom - highly solubility = compound dissolve
low solubility = compound form solid
Remember that atoms want to fill their outer energy layer…
Covalent/Molecular Compounds
o -non-metal and non-metal elements
o -atoms share electrons (from outer layer)
o -no ions are formed (because electrons don’t move from one atom to another)
Ex:
H2
CH4
1P
1P
1P
1P
6P
1P
1P
share e-
share e-
Covalent Bonds:
o atoms are “glued” together
o weaker than ionic bonds
o liquids, solids, & gases at room temperature
Nomenclature: Writing Binary Molecular Compounds
#1. Write first element’s entire name
#2. Change the second element’s ending to -ide
#3. Use prefix to indicate the number of each type of atom in the formula
mono = 1
di = 2
tri = 3
tetra = 4
penta = 5
hexa = 6
hepta = 7
octa = 8
nona = 9
deca = 10
#4. Write the name in lower case letters.
Ex:
CO
carbon monoxide or monocarbon monoxide
Writing Formula for Binary Molecular Compounds:
#1. Write symbol for elements in the same order
#2. Use subscripts to indicate the number of each type of atom
Ex:
sulfur dioxide SO2
hydrogen chloride HCl
Complex Molecular Compounds: Memorize….

H2O(l) – water

H2O2(l) – hydrogen peroxide

CH4(g) – methane

CH3COOH(aq) – vinegar

C6H12O6(s) – glucose

C12H22O11(s) – sucrose

NH3(g) – ammonia

C2H5OH(l) – ethanol

CH3OH(l) – methanol

O3(g) – ozone
pH is an other way to classify matter,
o acids, bases, and neutral substances.
Properties of bases and acids
 Acid Properties:
o contains a hydrogen acting as a metal (H+) and is soluble in water (aq).
o conducts electricity
o turns litmus paper red
o turns bromthymol blue yellow
o keeps phenolphalein colorless
o reacts with zinc to produce gas (hydrogen gas)
o tastes sour
o seen in any physical state (solid, liquid, or gas)

Base Properties:
o contains hydroxide (OH-) and is soluble in water (aq).
o feels slippery
o turns litmus paper blue
o keeps bromthymol blue blue
o turns phenolphalein pink
o conducts electricity
o doesn’t react with zinc
o tastes bitter
o usually seen as a solid
Bases neutralize acids
Ex:
ACID + BASE  WATER + SALT
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq)  H2O(l) + NaCl(s)
Naming and Writing Formulas for Acids:
o Two systems:
IUPAC
#1. Follow the guidelines for naming ionic compounds.
#2. Insert the word aqueous in front of the compound.
Ex:
HCl(aq)
aqueous hydrogen chloride
* Hint - Any ionic compound that has aqueous and hydrogen in front of the negative ion is an
ACID.
Classical System
Ionic Name
#1. hydrogen
ide
#2. hydrogen
ate
#3. hydrogen
ite
hydro
Acid Name
ic acid
ic acid
ous acid
Ex:
HCl(aq)
hydrogen chloride  hydrochloric acid
HClO3(aq)
hydrogen chlorate  chloric acid
HNO2(aq)
hydrogen nitrate  nitrous acid
Naming Bases:
 Same as ionic compounds but place the word aqueous in the front.
Ex:
NaOH(aq)  aqueous sodium hydroxide
Structure of Water:
o Polar Molecule: electrically neutral (protons = electrons)
o
Properties of water are determined by the attractive forces between water molecules
caused by the positive (protons) and negative forces (electrons) that are contained in
every atom.
o
Hydrogen bonds are extremely strong and require a great deal of energy to break or form
energy bonds.
Properties of Water:
o High surface tension:
o Cohesion: forces of attraction between molecules of the same substance.
o Adhesion: forces of attraction between molecules of different substances.
o Surface tension: the tendency for molecules to be pulled from the surface to the
interior of the liquid.
o
o
Addition of soap or detergents (surfactants) will lower the surface tension of the
liquid in which they are dissolved.
Water has a concave meniscus and shows capillary action:
o
Capillary action is the force that draws water up from the roots to the leaves in
tall trees.
o
Large specific heat capacity:
o Specific Heat Capacity: the amount of heat it takes to raise the temperature of a
specific mass of a substance by one degree Celsius.
o
o
Since it takes a lot of heat to raise the temperature of water, organisms’
internal temperature is regulated and remains constant.
Density of ice is less than the density of liquid water:
o Water expands as it freezes and a contract as it is heated.
𝐃𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 =
𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬
𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞
Density of Ice:
Density of Liquid Water:
Density of Stream:
o
Enables organisms to survive winter conditions under the ice.
o
Can exist in more than one state at the same time:
o
High melting and boiling points: requires a lot of energy to break the bonds
Types of Change in Matter:
1. Physical Change: substance changes shape, texture, state, and/or size but retains
similar properties as before the change and is a reversible change.
2. Chemical Change (Reaction): causes one or more new substances, with new
properties, to be formed and may be difficult or impossible to reverse.
Evidence:
 Heat or light energy is produced or absorbed. When gasoline burns in a car
engine and heat is released.
 Change in colour. Bleach on a denim jacket
 Change in odour. Striking a match
 Formation of a solid or gas (precipitate or bubbles). Vinegar and baking soda
produces bubbles.
o
o
Reactants = the form of matter that go into a reaction
Products = the forms of matter that come out of a reaction
Energy change always accompanies chemical reactions
 Exothermic reactions - release of excess energy (out of)
 more energy stored in the reactant bonds than needed to form the product bonds
A + B
Ex:

C + D +
C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O +
Endothermic reactions - absorb energy from surroundings (into)
 more energy is need to form the products than can be provide by breaking
reactant bonds.
A + B
Ex:


C + D +
+ AlCl3 + 3H2O  Al(OH)3 + 3HCl
How do we represent chemical reactions?
 Chemical equations which are recipes for chemical changes that tells you what to put in and
what you get out
 The release/absorption of energy doesn’t affect the mass and must be conserved.
Law of Conservation of Mass (Lavoisier)
 matter cannot be created nor destroyed only changed
Ex:
40 kg (wood) + HEAT

40 kg (ashes)
Therefore, the total number of atoms on the reactant side must equal the total number of atoms
on the product side. Equations must be balanced.
Three Rules for Balancing Equations:
#1. Write the correct chemical formulas for both reactants and
products.
 reactants left/products right & arrow in between
#2. Balance each atom, one at a time, using whole number
coefficients
 start at the atom with the greatest number
#3. Leave hydrogen and oxygen atoms to balance last.
Balancing Equations:
Ex:
HCl +
NaOH 
Ca(OH)2 +
C6H12O6 +
H2O +
KCl  CaCl2
O2 
NaCl
+
H2O +
KOH
CO2
Types of Chemical Reactions:
 Formation or Composition Reactions - simple elements combine to form compounds.
A + B  AB
O2 + 2H2  2 H20

Decomposition Reactions - reactions that produce products simpler than the reactants
∆
AB  A + B
∆
HgO  2Hg + O2

Combustion/Oxidation Reactions - reaction of a substance with oxygen (burning).
Always exothermic and have carbon dioxide and water as products
CHx + O2  CO2 + H2O
CH4 + 3O2  CO2 + 4H2O

Replacement Reactions - exchanges occur between the reactants to produce products
that are neither more nor less complex than reactants.
o
Single Replacements: metals (or non-metals) switch places
AB + C  CB + A
2NaCl + Ca  CaCl2 + 2Na
AB + C  AC + B
2NaI +
Cl2 
2NaCl + I2
o
Double Replacements: when 2 single replacements occur in the same reaction

AB + CD  AD + CB
Na2CO3 + Ca(OH)2  2NaOH
+ CaCO3
Chemical Tests:
 Hydrogen: a burning splint is lowered into a jar. (+) Pop
 Oxygen: a glowing splint is lowered into a jar. (+) splint will ignite
 Carbon Dioxide: limewater is added to a jar. (+) limewater will become cloudy
 Water: cobalt (ii) chloride paper will be added to the solution. (+) paper turns pink
Moles and Molar Mass:


𝐧 = 𝐦⁄
𝐌
n = moles or the number of atoms of that element
~ 1 mol = 6.02 x 10 to the 23rd power (Avogradro’s Number)
m = mass or the amount of a substance in grams
M = molar mass or the mass of a mole of a compound
Molar Mass:
 Use the atomic mass given in the periodic table and multiply it by the number of
moles for each element in the compound.
 Add up all the values.
Ex:
Molar mass of Cu(ClO3)2:
Molar Mass of CCl4?
Molar Mass of C2H4?
1 Cu = 1 x 63.55 = 63.55
2 Cl = 2 x 35.45 = 70.90
6 O = 6 x 16.00 = 96.00
230.45 g/mol
Calculating the Number of Moles from Mass:
n = m/M
Ex:
Determine the number of moles of magnesium oxide in 8.06g of
the compound.
MgO 1 Mg = 1 x 24.31 = 24.31
1 O = 1 x 16.00 = 16.00
40.31 g/mol
n = m/M
= 8.06 g/ 40.31 g/mol
= 0.200 mol
Calculating Mass from the Number of Moles:
m = nM
Ex:
CuSO4
Determine the mass of 0.25 mol of copper (ii) sulfate.
1 Cu = 1 x 63.55 = 63.55
m = nM
1 S = 1 x 32.00 = 32.00
= (0.25 mol) x (249.71g/mol)
4 O = 4 x 16.00 = 64.00
= 62 g
249.71 g/mol
Unit 2: Biology
Biology: The study of living things, their processes, and connection to the external environment.
Microscopes:
 History:
o Light Microscopes:
 Janssen discovered the magnifying properties of lenses which led to the two
lens compound microscope. (20X)
o


Hooke developed the three lens compound microscope (100X). He also was
one of the first to see cells and name them.

van Leeuwenhoek designed a microscope with better lens that allowed him
to see moving cells. (250X)
Electron Microscopes:
 Specimens are illuminated by electrons instead of light.

TEM: transmission electron microscope
 Two dimensional image

SEM: scanning electron microscope
 Three dimensional image

CLSM: confocal laser scanning microscope
 Optical slices of thick specimens producing two dimensional images
~ slide show

STM: scanning tunneling microscope
 Metal probe allows electrons to flow out and a computer generates a
three dimensional image of very small objects.
Components:

Magnification: Ocular Lens times Objective Lens Power =

Scale: measure the diameter of the field of view in millimeters for low-power lens.
 Draw the cell you see and measure its drawing size.
 Determine how many cells can fit across the field of view and then calculate the
scale.
 Field of view is 4 mm, one cell has the diameter of 1 mm (four across)
 Cell drawn was 8 cm
 Scale is then 8 cm = 1 mm, or 1 cm = 0.125 mm.

Staining Techniques:
 Contrast: most cells are colourless and with the addition of a stain (methylene blue)
parts of cells pick up the stain and become visible.

X
Resolution: ability to distinguish between two structures that are very close together.
The Cell Theory:
 All living things are made up of one or more cells and the materials produced by these
cells.
 All life functions take place in cells, making them the smallest unit of life.
o Intake nutrients, movement, growth, response to stimuli, exchange of gases,
waste removal, and reproduction.
 All cells are produced from pre-existing cells through the process of cell division.
The Chemical Composition of Cell Structures:
 Carbohydrates:
o Sugars, glucose, cellulose, starch
o Energy and structure
 Lipids:
o Fats and Oils
o Insulation, protection, structure, and energy
 Proteins:
o Composed of amino acids
o Enzymes, hormones, structure
 Nucleic Acids:
o Genetic information
 Water:
 Trace Elements:
o Minerals like iron, zinc
Cells:
 Divided into two groups:
1. Prokaryotes ~ no membrane- bound nucleus
2. Eukaryotes ~ membrane – bound nucleus

Animal Cells:

Plant Cells:
 Everything an animal cell contains with the exception of a lysosome, flagella, and
cilia.
 Contains plastids and cell wall
Cell Organelles:
 Cell membrane:
o Protective barrier
o Controls what comes in and out of the cell
o Cell interaction and communication
o Recognition of molecules

Nucleus:
o Contains the DNA (genetic information) ~ Gene Mapping
o Directs all cell activities (determines the shape and metabolism of the cell).
o Surrounded by a nuclear envelope

Centrioles:
o Cylindrical structures near the nucleus
o Animals cell division

Cytoplasm:
o Solution within the cell that contains all the nutrients needed by the cell.
o Suspends the organelles.
o Cytoplasmic streaming (moving) allows for movement of molecules and
organelles in the cell.

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER):
o Small tubes that branch from the nuclear envelope that transports materials in
the cell.
 Smooth ER: Fat and oil production
 Rough ER: Contain ribosomes which are responsible for protein
synthesis.

Golgi Apparatus:
o Flat disc-shaped sacks involved in secretion.
o Receives materials from ER and packages them for transport out of the cell.

Lysosomes:
o Membrane-bound sacks which contain digestive enzymes which defend against
invading bacteria and destroy damaged cell organelles.

Mitochondria:
o Plants and animals
o Contains its own DNA.
o Rod-like structures that produces most of the cell’s energy
o Site of cellular respiration that converts chemical energy into ATP (energy for
life’s processes)
 C6H12O6 + 6 O2  6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy (ATP)

Plastids:
o Plants only
o Contains pigments and has its own DNA
o Site of photosynthesis that converts solar energy into chemical energy or
carbohydrates
 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Solar Energy  6 O2 + C6H12O6 (glucose)

Vacuoles (larger) or Vesicles (smaller):
o storage deposits for nutrients, products of secretion, and fats that are membranebound
o Plants store water in vacuoles which can increase turgor pressure or turgid

Cilia and Flagella:
o Locomotion of the cell or movement of fluid around the cell.

Cytoskeleton:
o Internal network of fibers used to support the cell

Cell Wall:
o Plants, fungi, bacteria
o Cellulose supports the cell with a rigid frame.
Cell cycle: the period from the formation of one cell until its division into two.

Phases of the cell cycle:
S Phase
Growth, DNA synthesis
Mitosis
Gap Phase
Gap Phase
Growth & Final Preparation
Rapid growth and metabolic activity
Interphase: Gap phases and S phase
Mitosis: Asexual Cell Division
 Prophase: nuclear envelope disappears and chromosomes form

Metaphase: chromosomes meet up in the middle one above each other
 Anaphase: chromosomes separate from each other
 Telophase: nuclear envelop reappears around the two new nuclei and the cells separate
Systems:
o Open System: exchanges both energy and matter within its surroundings.
o Ex: cell, egg or the ecosystem
o
Closed System: exchanges energy but not matter within its surroundings.
o Ex: flask containing a chemical reaction or the biosphere
o
Isolated System: does not exchange energy or matter within its surroundings.
o Ex: perfect vacuum
o
A system with constant energy stores and a delicate balance of energy conversion is said
to be in a steady state or homeostasis.
Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane):
 Controls the movement of matter and energy in and out of the cell therefore is an
organelle of homeostasis.

Structure: fluid mosaic model
o Consists of a phospholipid bilayer
o
o
o
Hydrophobic and hydrophilic layers
Imbedded proteins act as identifying marker to other cells, carry out chemical
reactions, protect cells, or as attachment sites for messenger molecules
(hormones)
Allows movement of some materials through passive and active transport
because of its semi-permeable property.
Transport Across the Cell Membrane:
 Passive Transport:
 Movement with the concentration gradient.
 The membrane does not physically assist in the movement of substances across it.
 No ATP is used.
 Selective openings found within the membrane allow this diffusion to occur.

Diffusion: Movement of a molecule from an area of high to low concentration.
 Molecules always move down their concentration gradients.
 Molecular species diffuse independently of each other.

Cytoplasmic streaming increases diffusion.

Osmosis: movement of water across a semi-permeable membrane from high to low
concentration.




Hypotonic solution: solution with less solute concentration and more water.
Hypertonic: solution with more solute and less water
Isotonic: equal amounts of water on both sides of the membrane.
Facilitated Diffusion: special membrane imbedded protein allows specific molecules
through the membrane using its concentration gradient.

Active Transport:
 Movement against the concentration gradient using ATP to drive the pump.

Endocytosis: movement of large molecules into the cell by engulfing the substance
with the cell membrane.

Exocytosis: the process of removing matter from the cell by expelling out materials
through the fusing of the vacuole to the plasma membrane.
Applications of Cell Movement in Medicine and Industry:
 Pharmaceutical Research in protein membranes:
o Receptor molecules or recognition molecule
o Protein hormones (insulin)
 Kidney Dialysis
 Delivery of Medicine
 Water Purification
Cell Size and Evolution of Multicellular Organisms:
 Surface Area to Volume Ratio:
 Surface Area (amount of membrane) to Volume Ratio (size of cell):
 Surface Area: sum of the areas on all sides (cm²)
 Volume: area of the base times height (cm³).
 Multicellular organisms find that having a higher surface area to volume ratio enables
them to absorb more and diffuse faster.
Ex:
2cm
2cm
SA = l x w x 6 sides
=2x2x6
= 24 cm²
V=lxwxh
=2x2x2
= 8 cm³
2cm
SA to V = 24 to 8 = 3
SA = 1 x 1 x 48 sides
= 48 cm²
V=2x2x2
= 8 cm³
1cm
SA to V = 48 to 8 = 6
1cm
1 cm
1 cm
1 cm 1 cm

Size and Shape of Organisms:
o Certain shapes maximize surface area to volume ratios.
o In-foldings or flatten shapes

Maximizing Potential
 Diffusion is the only way for the nucleus to determine the well being of the cell.
 Diffusion takes too long in large cells.
 It is better to have many smaller cells.
 The amount of cell membrane determines how many molecules can pass in and out.
Multicellular organisms and their systems
 Organisms need to acquire molecules and energy from the environment and then
transport food, water and oxygen to each cell and remove waste products safely and
effectively.

Specialization: cells become specialized and although they contain a complete set of
the organism’s DNA, they perform only select functions.
 Differentiated cells forming systems
 More efficient division of labour
 Multicellular organisms have evolved this process of differentiation allowing
“systems” to develop.
 Single celled organisms have specialized organelles.

Size:
 Single-celled organisms are limited in size due to surface area to volume ratios
and rate of diffusion.
 Transport systems allow organisms to increase in size.

Interdependence:
 Life of a multicellular organism is not dependent upon one cell.
Cells 
Tissues  group of cells performing the same function
Organs  tissues performing the same function
Systems  set of organs that perform one or more
functions as a unit
Multicellular Organism
Plant Tissues:

Dermal Tissue or Epidermis:
o Outer layer of cells that cover all plants.
o Responsible for gas exchange (leaves), protection of disease and water loss
(waxy cuticle  wood), uptake of water and minerals (roots).

Ground Tissue:
o Below the epidermis and make up a majority of the plant.
o Responsible for strength and support (stem), food and water storages (roots),
and is the location for photosynthesis (leaves).

Vascular Tissue:
o Deepest layer
o Transports materials throughout the plant.
 Phloem ~ living cells that transport organic food materials formed from
photosynthesis down to the roots for storage.

Xylem ~ dead cells that transport water and inorganic materials from the
roots to the leaves of the plant.
Plant Systems:


Shoot System: everything that is above the ground; including leaves, stems, buds,
flowers, tubers and fruits.
Root System: everything that is below the ground; includes roots
Photosynthesis:
 Occurs in the chloroplast using light energy to bond carbon dioxide and water to produce
glucose and oxygen.
o Glucose used for energy
o Inorganic minerals are used to make proteins, lipids etc. ~ separate function
 Require water that is taken in by the roots and carbon dioxide absorbed through the
leaves.
Cellular Respiration:
 Plant cells need to release the energy found in glucose for growth, reproduction etc.
 Mitochondria converts glucose using oxygen into carbon dioxide, water, and ATP
Gas Exchange:
 Gases can enter and exit the plant, using diffusion, through stomata located on the
leaves.


Tiny openings that are surrounded by guard cells.
o Open: light causes them to swell up due to osmosis
o Close: shrink away
Woody plants, bark prevents gas exchange, have lenticels (tiny openings)
Water Absorption and Transport:
 Water is absorbed through osmosis into root hairs which passes on the water to the
xylem tissue where it is pulled up the plant, due to water’s cohesive properties, towards
the stomata.
o Root Pressure: turgor pressure within the root pushes fluid upward.
 Roots pull in minerals using active transport and water is pushed in as a
result of solute concentration differences.
o
o
Transpiration: Evaporation of water from the stomata that causes water to be
pulled up to replace the lost water molecule.
Adhesion: water molecules attach to the walls of the xylem
Sugar Transport:
 Sugars are pumped into the phloem at the leaf by active transport.
 As the sugar concentration increases, water follows due to osmosis, turgor pressure
increases in those cells and the fluid flows down due to concentration gradients.
Plant Control Systems
 Plants can respond to specific stimuli or environmental factors.
o Growth
o Open/Close Stomata
o Flowers bloom
o Leaves fall

Responses are called tropisms
o Phototropism: growth of plants towards a light sources
o Auxins: growth hormone found in root tips or in meristems (nodes)
o Gravitropism: growth of plants towards or away from gravity
o Temperature:
o Water:
o Touch:
o Length of time exposed to darkness: seasons
Unit 3: Physics
Unit Conversions: Factor Label Method
4.5 m/min to m/s
15 cm/hr to m/s
6 km/hr to
m/min
Types of Quantities:
 Scalar quantity: indicates only the magnitude (how much) of the quantity
o Ex: Distance, Speed, Acceleration, Time

Vector quantity: indicates the magnitude and direction
o Ex: Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration
Distance vs. Displacement:
 Distance: change in distance of an object moving from a starting point.
o Scalar quantity (d)
o Standard Unit are m
o Ex:
0 m ------------------ 10 m

total distance 10 m
Displacement: change in distance and direction from a reference point.
o Vector quantity (d = p2-p1)
o  means change in…..
o Standard Unit are m (direction is needed and indicated by + or -)
o Ex:
-2 m -----------0 m ------------ 3 m
p1
p2
total distance 3m + 5m = 8m
displacement 3m (right) + -5m (left) = -2m (left)
How to Identify Vector Directions:
 X-Axis Method:
 Up and right are positive
 Down and left are negative
 Directions between the axis lines are given in degrees and not in positives or
negatives.

Navigator Method:
 North and East are positive
 South and West are negative
 Directions between the axis lines are given only in degrees and are not given a
positive or negative value.
Practice Questions:
A man starting in position -10m(S) walks to position 15m(N). What is his displacement?
What is the displacement of an object starting at 4m(W), travels 8m(E), 15m(W) and 2m(E)?
A woman starts at 22m(E) walks 30m west, turns around walks back east 4m only to turn around
and run 41m west. What is her displacement and distance?
Motion:
 The change in position of an object relative to a reference point.
 Change in length and/or direction
 Motion Can Be Best Described Using Mathematics and Graphs
Uniform Motion:
 An object is traveling at a constant rate of motion in a straight line.
o Speed - refers to motion of an object regardless of direction
 Scalar quantity (v)
 Standard Unit are m/s
 Ex: 10m/s
o
Velocity - measurement of an object’s motion and direction
 Vector quantity (v)
 Standard Unit are + or - m/s
 Ex: -10m/s(S)
Speed Formula:
 Speed(v) = change in distance /change in time (d/t)
Ex: A bike is traveling 100m in 30s. What is it’s speed?
Types of Uniform Motion:
 Average Speed: total distance traveled in a given time, regardless of changes in speed v (ave)
= total d/ total t
Ex: A car drives 1.5km in 0.1h, stops for 0.2h, then drives another 3.5km in 0.2h. What is the
average speed?
o
Slope of the line of best fit = average speed
Slope of the Line: * change in distance / change in time (Rise over Run)
Helps us predict future events
#1. Take two points on the line of best fit.
#2. Find the changes in distance and time.
#3. Use the formula slope = (Y2-Y3)/(X1-X2)

Instantaneous Speed: speed of an object at a specific instant
o graph will tell you one data point
o Example: What is the speed at the 11.3 minute mark? Or looking at the speedometer.
Distance – Time Graphs:
 Point indicates the time or distance travelled.
 Slope indicates the speed
Velocity:
 Describes both rate of motion and direction.
Velocity Formula:
 Velocity (v) = change in displacement /change in time (d /t)
Ex: A person walks 10.0m (W) away from a bus stop in 5.00s. What is the average velocity of the
person?
Practice Questions:
A car is traveling -30km/h(S) for 50mins. What is the total displacement?
What is the final position of an object that is starting at 2m(E), traveling
-3m/s(W) for 5s? What would be its total displacement?
Position – Time Graphs: must include direction
 Point indicates position and time
 Slope indicates velocity (+ N or E and – S or W)
Non-uniform motion:
 Object is not traveling at a constant speed
 Acceleration & Deceleration (negative acceleration)
Scalar Quantities
o a =  v /  t or v2-v1/t2-t1
o m/s² (+ accelerating and – decelerating)
Ex: A car is starting from rest (0m/s) and accelerates to 20m/s in 30s. What is its acceleration.
Practice Problems:
A bike is traveling at 3.0m/s and slows down to stop for a cat crossing the street. If it takes the
rider 2s to stop, what was the deceleration rate?
An object travels at starting speed of 10m/s. If it travels for 300m in 15s, what is its acceleration?
Speed –Time Graphs
 Acceleration = slope
 Distance = area under the line
 Instantaneous speed = point on line
 Average speed = area / total time
Vector Quantities
o a =  v /  t or v2-v1/t2-t1
o m/s² (+ accelerating and – decelerating) and direction
Positive Acceleration: (speeding up)
*assume t=10s
 change in velocity is positive and the direction is positive
-10m/s (W)

+20m/s (E)
change in velocity is negative and the direction is negative
-20m/s (W)
+10m/s (E)
Negative Acceleration: (slowing down)
*assume t=10s
 change in velocity is positive and the direction is negative
-20m/s (W)

+10m/s (E)
change in velocity is negative and the direction is positive
-10m/s (W)
+20m/s (E)
Ex: A car is starting from rest (0m/s) and accelerates west to 30m/s in 90s. What is its
acceleration?
Practice Problems:
A bike is traveling at 2.5m/s(E) and slows down to stop for a cat crossing the street. If it takes the
rider 2s to stop, what was the acceleration? Was it positive or negative?
An object travels at starting velocity of 10m/s(S). If it travels for 300m(N) in 15s, what is its
acceleration? Was it positive or negative?
An object is traveling south at an initial velocity of 3m/s. If its starting position is at 5m(N), travels
500m in 40s, what is its acceleration?
Velocity-Time Graphs
 Acceleration = slope
 Displacement = area under the line
 Instantaneous velocity= point on line
 Average velocity= area / total time
Graph Relationships:
Scalar Quantities
Uniform Motion:
 Distance to Speed

Speed to Distance
Non-Uniform Motion:
 Acceleration to Speed

Acceleration to Distance
Vector Quantities
Uniform Motion:
 Position to Velocity

Velocity to Position
Non-Uniform Motion:
 Acceleration to Velocity

Acceleration to Position
The Development of the Steam Engine:
 Steam Engine: any machine that generates steam and converts the steam pressure into
mechanical motion.
o Steam engine was invented through the process of trial and error.
 Hero of Alexandra: sealed kettle that had two pipes that carried steam
to a hollow ball. The ball was mounted on the pipes so that it was free to
spin around. Steam escaped through jets on the ball, causing it to spin.
 Savery: invented the first practical steam engine to draw up water from
mines.
 Newcomen: designed an engine that relied on atmospheric pressure
and pistons.
 Watt: invented an engine that could be used for powering other things,
wheels etc. Modifications helped the rapid development of the Industrial
Revolution.
 Parsons: developed steam turbines that did not use pistons
Scientific Theories of Heat:
 Early Theories:
o Ancient Greeks believed that all matter consisted of a combination of four
elements: earth, fire, air, and water. When an object burned only fire was
released.
o The Phlogiston Theory: mid-evil times
 Substances contained an invisible fluid called phlogiston. This phlogiston
flowed out of an object when it was burned only living behind ashes.
 Problem: some items leave more mass behind when burnt…
o The Caloric Theory: 1700s
 Caloric or Heat was massless fluid found in every substance that could
not be destroyed or created, only could flow between objects.
 Heat always flowed from warm objects to cold objects.
 Problem: metal friction causes cold objects to get hot…
 Modern Theories:
o Count Rumford’s Hypothesis:
o Heat is equivalent to energy. There is no invisible substance.
o James Prescott Joule published calculations to prove this relationship.
Heat:

The transfer of thermal energy from one object to another
Thermal Energy:
 The energy related to the continual and random motion of atoms and molecules.
Kinetic Molecular Theory:
 As heat is added to molecules their activity increases and the spaces between
the molecules increase.
 Solids ~ molecules are close together, move very little, and have less
energy.
 Liquids ~ molecules are farther apart, move a bit more, and have more
energy.
 Gases ~ molecules are very far apart, move a lot, and have a lot of energy.
Temperature:
 The measure of the average kinetic energy of the individual atoms or molecules in a
substance.
Specific Heat Capacity:
o The amount of heat it takes to raise the temperature of a specific mass of a substance by
one degree Celsius.
o 4.16 joule of work/energy causes 1.0 g of water to raise 1°C
The Laws of Thermodynamics
1. Energy cannot be created nor destroyed, but can be transferred from one form/object to
another.
2. Some energy is lost due to heat and not used in work.
Force is a push or pull on an object measured in N (kg m/s²)
Newton’s Laws:
1. An object at rest will remain at rest and an object in motion will remain in motion unless
acted upon by an outside force.
Inertia - tendency to resist changes in motion
2. Force, mass, and acceleration are related
F = ma (F = Force, m = Mass, and a = acceleration)
.
3. For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
(+)F= (-)F
Energy and Work:
 Energy: the ability to do work. Measured in Joules
 Work: the transfer of mechanical energy from one object to another object. Measured in
Joules
o Movement and Force
o Force and distance excreted in the same direction (carrying a bag parallel to
walking)
Formula:
W=FΔd
W is the work in Joules
F is the force in Newtons
Δd is the distance in metres
Ex: How much work is being done on a 20kg cart that moves 8m with the acceleration of
2.0m/s2?
Graphical Methods of Determining Work:
 Force – Position Graph
o Calculate the area underneath the graph to indicate work
o Calculate the amount of force or position using points on the graph.
Classification of Energy:
Potential Energy (Ep)
 potential of an object to do work due to its position or condition.
 “stored energy” ex: elastic, chemical
 reference point (i.e. ground)
Kinetic Energy (Ek)
 energy possessed by an object due to motion
 “moving energy” * any object that moves has Ek

release of energy
 energy that does work
o ex: hit by a ball= heavier ball hurts more and so does a fast ball
Gravitational Potential Energy:
Ep = mgh
where Ep = gravitational potential energy (J)
m = mass of object (kg)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s²)
* 9.81 m/s²
h = vertical distance from reference point (m)
Ex: A 22.5kg stone is just about to fall off a cliff that is 15m above the ground. What is the
potential energy found in the stone?
Electrical Potential Energy:
 energy from electrical forces between opposite charges
(+)
(-)
Ee = qV
where Ee = electrical potential energy
q = unit of charge (coulombs or c)
V = Ep per unit charge (Volt or J/c)
Ex: What is the electrical potential energy found in a 9.0V battery that uses 30c unit of charge?
Kinetic Energy:
Ek = 1/2mv²
where Ek = Kinetic Energy (J)
m = mass (kg)
v = speed
Ex: A 750kg car is traveling at a speed of 12.0m/s. What is it’s the kinetic energy?
Electrical Kinetic Energy:
 electrons moving through the wire
 movement of electrical charges = current
Ee = Pt
P = Ee/t
where P = Power (Watts = J/s)
Ee = Energy (J)
t = Time (s)
rate at which energy is used
Ex: How much power is used by a light bulb that emits 150J of energy in 1.4 minutes?
Mechanical Energy:
 Combination of kinetic and potential energy.
Em = Ep + Ek
Em = 1/2mv² + mgh
Ex: A 0.300 kg ball is thrown in a straight line through the air. At a height of 2.50m above the
surface of Earth, it has the speed of 20.0m/s. What is the total mechanical energy of the ball?
Law of Conservation of Energy:
 Total amount of energy remains constant.
 Kinetic energy may be converted to potential energy and vice versa but the total amount
is the same.
Ek ↔Ep
Ex: A 1.50kg rock is dropped over the edge of a cliff, 30.0m above the surface of the lake. What
is the speed of the rock just before it hits the surface of the lake?
Energy Efficiency:
 A measurement of how effectively a machine converts energy input into useful energy
output.
Percent efficiency = useful energy output (work) / total energy input (work) x 100
Ex: A 0.5kg ball is dropped from 1m, hits the ground, and bounces back with 65% efficiency.
What is its maximum speed after it hits the ground?
Energy Applications:
 Energy Sources:
o Renewable Energy Sources: continually and infinitely available resources
 Solar energy
 Wind energy
 Water energy
 Biomass
 Geothermal energy
 Tidal energy
o Non-renewable Energy Sources: limited and irreplaceable resources
 Fossil Fuel
 Nuclear energy (fission or fusion of atoms)

Energy Demand:
o Amount of energy used per person has increased exponentially.
o World population has increased
o More societies use non-renewable resources instead of renewable resources.

Consequences:
o Strain on supplies
o Environmental destruction
o Pollution
o Greenhouse gases

Conservation:
o Reduce amount of energy used
o Cogeneration: using wasteful energy form one process to power a second
process.
o Sustainable solutions
Unit 4: Global Systems
Biosphere:
 A thin layer that has conditions suitable for supporting living things.

Lithosphere ~ land
o Minerals, organic materials, water, and located on the mantle.
o Outer surface of the earth
o Contains many organisms
o Warmed by solar energy

Atmosphere ~ air
o Held to the earth by gravity and composed of solid particles, water vapour, and
atmospheric gases:
 Nitrogen 78%, Oxygen 21%, Argon 0.9%, Carbon Dioxide 0.03%, and
Trace Gases (Ozone, Methane) 0.01% ~ relatively fixed.
 Green-house gases that enable the earth to maintain a constant
temperature.

Layers: based on average air temperature and altitude
 Troposphere: lowest region 10km.
 15°C average air temperature
 Contains 80% of atmosphere’s mass & Ozone layer begins
 Inversions: a reversal of normal temperature patterns found in the
troposphere. Trap cold air close to the ground.

Stratosphere: middle region 50 km
 -60°C to 0°C
 Contains the ozone layer absorbing 99% of ultraviolet radiation
 3O2 ~~> 2O3


Depletion is the result of the release of Chloroflurocarbons (CFCs),
which are broken down by UV light allowing chlorine molecules to
combine and trap thousands of ozone molecules.
Thermosphere: upper region
 -100°C to 1500°C

Hydrosphere ~ water
o Fresh (3%) and salt water (97%)
o Assists in holding the constant temperature of the earth.
o The Hydrological Cycle:
Climate:
 Weather characteristics an area experiences over many years
Factors Influencing Climate:
1. (Solar Energy) Insolation: Amount of solar energy received by a region, dependent upon
latitude and specific characteristics of the lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere.
 Angle of Inclination:
 Title of the earth (23.5ºC) affects the seasons.
 Climate would have been the same all year if the earth had no tilt.

Latitude
 Determines the share of the sun’s radiation that a place receives.
 Earth is not heated equality.
 Sunlight hits the Equator with more concentration.
 As sunlight hits the north or south poles the same amount of energy is spread
out.

Natural Green-House Effect:
o CO2 traps UV radiation and heats the atmosphere.

Albedo Effect:
 The extent a surface has to reflect light. Higher the albedo, the greater the ability
to reflect light. E.g., 0.08 means 8% of the light is reflected and 92% is absorbed.
 Light colors have high albedo ratings.
 E.g., snow, clouds, sand.

Net Radiation Budget:
 The difference between the amount of incoming radiant energy coming in and of
the outgoing energy re-emitted from the Earth’s surface.
 Net Radiation Budget = Incoming Radiation – Outgoing Radiation
2. Water:
 Large specific heat capacity holds and releases a great deal of heat.
o Specific Heat Capacity: the amount of heat it takes to raise the temperature of a
specific mass of a substance by one degree Celsius.
c = Q / m t
c= specific heat capacity (joules/gC)
Q = heat energy (joules)
m = mass (g)
t = change in temperature (C)
Water (Solid = 2.00 J/gºC, Gas = 2.02 J/gºC , Liquid = 4.19 J/gºC)
Practice:
How much energy is released when 35g of water cools from 25ºC to 10ºC?
How much energy is required to heat 30g ice cube from -25ºC to -5ºC?
What is the mass of water that water that absorbs 100 000J of energy which raised its
temperature by 35ºC?
What is the final temperature of 40g of 90ºC water that releases 2334J of energy?

Unique heat of fusion:
o Heat of Fusion: the amount of heat required to convert one kilogram of ice into
liquid water.
H fus = heat of fusion (joules/grams)
H fus = Q / m
Q = energy (joules)
m = mass
Water (H fus = 333J/g)
Practice:
How much heat is needed to melt 100g of ice?
How much heat is lost to freeze 200g of water?

Very large heat of vaporization:
o Heat of Vaporization: amount of heat needed to cause the phase change from
one kilogram of a substance from liquid to vapour.
H vap = Q / m
Water (H vap = 2260J/g)
Practice:
How much heat is needed to evaporate150g of water?
How much heat is lost to precipitate 200g of steam?
Heating Water Through Phase Changes
How much heat is needed to be added for a 230g ice cube (-10 ºC) to melt and become 25 ºC
water puddle?
How much heat is lost when 340g of 115 ºC steam becomes a -20 ºC ice cube?
3. Thermal Energy Transfer:
o
o
o
Radiation: emission of energy as particles or waves that are either absorbed or
reflected once it hits an object. Gases.
Conduction: transfer of energy between the particles of a substance without moving
the particles to a new location. Solids.
Convection: transfer of energy through the movement of particles from one location
to another. Fluids (gases or liquids)
 Current: a flow from one place to another.
Warm air expands
with energy
Low Density
Floats
Cold air contracts
High Density
Sinks
o
Atmospheric Pressure: pressure exerted by the mass of air above any point on
Earth’s surface.
o
Wind: the movement of cool air from these areas of high pressure to areas of
low pressure.
o
The rising and sinking masses of air in convection currents causes changes in
atmospheric pressure causing wind.
o
Jet Streams: band of fast moving air high up in the stratosphere
o
Ocean Currents: water carries large amounts of heat
o
Surface Characters: mountains
o
Coriolis Effect: the deflection of any object from a straight path by the
rotation of the earth. Causes the moving air or wind to turn right in the
Northern Hemisphere and left in the Southern Hemisphere.
Climate and Biomes:
Biomes:
 A large geographical region with a particular climate and have animals and plants which
are adapted to those conditions. (Terrestrial Ecosystems)
 Open Systems: matter and energy flows through a biome just like matter and energy
flows through cells.
Energy and Matter Flow in the Ecosystem:
 Autotrophs (Producers): Self-Feeder, organisms capable of obtaining their energy and
matter from the physical environment.


Photosynthesis: formation of carbohydrates from light energy.

Chemosynthesis ~ formation of carbohydrates from chemical energy and not light
energy. Ex: nitrogen-fixing bacteria
Heterotrophs: organisms that obtain food and energy from autotrophs or other heterotrophs.
 Consumer: organisms that obtain food and energy from living tissue
 Decomposers: bacteria and fungus that break down the remains or waste of other
organisms to obtain their organic nutrients (Dead tissue).
Food Chains:


Laws of Thermodynamics:
o First: energy cannot be created nor destroyed, only changed from one form to
another.
o Second: when energy is changed from one form to another, some energy is lost
to heat.
Nutrient Cycles:
o Nutrients are never lost only recycled over and over again.
Types of Biomes:
1. Tundra:
 Little precipitation, cold temperatures, short summer
 Mosses, lichen
 Large animals with lots of insulation
2. Taiga:
 Snow precipitation, cool temperatures, cool summer
 Evergreen trees
 Hawks, moose, bears
3. Deciduous Forest:
 lots of precipitation, warm summers
 broad-leave deciduous trees
 deer, chipmunks, turkey
4. Grassland: Prairie (Alberta) or Savanna (Africa)
 Small amounts of precipitation, moderate temperature, warm summers and cold
winters
 Grasses and shrubs
 Hawks, rattlesnakes, coyotes, lions
5. Desert:
 Low precipitation, hot days and cold nights
 Cacti
 Lizards, running birds, sheep
6. Rain Forest:
 Heavy precipitation, very warm, short dry seasons
 Broad-leaved trees, ferns
 Snakes, lizards, birds, monkeys
Climatographs:
Climate Affects All Organisms:
 Adaptations are characteristics that enable an organism to better survive and reproduce in an
environment. Climate plays an important role in shaping adaptations.
Types of Adaptations:
 Structural: physical features of an organism that involves modifications to the organisms’
body shape or parts. Example: ducks have webbed feet for swimming.

Physiological: internal adaptations that involve organs, systems, and or chemical processes
like enzymes and pheromones.

Behavioural: things organisms do as a response to a specific stimulus. Examples involve
hibernation, migration, hunting, reproductive rituals, attraction to light.
Climate Change:
1. Natural Changes:
 Paleoclimatology studies past events in order to see trends or patterns that will help
predict future events.
 Earth’s Tilt: changes over time from 22.3º to 24.5º thereby influencing the angle of
inclination. Maximum tilt causes the poles to warm up.
 Earth’s Orbit: shape changes resulting in fluctuations in the distance between the
Earth and the sun affecting the amount of solar energy hitting the earth during the
various seasons.

Continental Drift: movement of continents changes the distribution of land and water
thereby affecting the air and ocean currents.

Weathering: rocks breaking down with carbonic acid removes carbon dioxide from
the air.

Catastrophic Events: impact of meteorites, volcanoes, creates dust, reflects solar
energy

Feedback: change in climate can cause other changes.
o Positive: decrease in global temperatures creates an increase in the amount
of sea ice which increases solar radiation reflection which further drops
global temperature.
o

Negative: increased carbon dioxide levels traps more heat causing ice to
melt and evaporate which increases cloud cover which increases albedo
thereby decreasing global temperature.
Mass Extinction Events: quick climate change causes many organisms to die before
any species have a change to adapt.
2. Human Induced Changes:
 Global Warming
 Deforestation
 Fossil Fuel Emissions
 Urbanization
 Flooding due to dams
 Pollution
 Monocultures ( growing a single plant species to the exclusion of others)
Human Response:
 Taking action to minimize the effects of change.
o Reducing green-house gases emissions
o Using energy efficiently
o Using renewable energy sources
 Removing the causes of the change.
o Research
o Taking everyone’s viewpoint into consideration (social, economic, environmental,
and political)
o Legislation (Kyoto Accord)