Chapters 2-5
Pgs. 76-95
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Mediterranean classical civilizations were composed
of two main cultures:1)Greek and 2)Roman.
Together these civilizations form what is known as
Greco-Roman culture.
The study of classical Mediterranean civilization is
complicated because it first includes Greek and then
Roman political, social, and economic institutions,
which were sometimes shared but often unique.
While it is more dynamic than the previously studied
Chinese and Indian civilizations in some areas, it is
far less successful in others.
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Greeks and
Romans had
contacts with
and were
influenced by
the Persian
Empire.
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Persia was one of the largest empires in world
history, located in the Middle East.
Because of their size and influence, they
naturally had encounters with Mediterranean
civilizations, particularly Greece.
Under the leadership of Cyrus the Great, they
developed a massive empire and a new
religion (Zoroastrianism).
They were eventually defeated by the Greek
conqueror, Alexander the Great.
PERSIAN EMPIRE AT ITS
HEIGHT
CYRUS THE GREAT
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At the time of the
Persian Empire,
Greece consisted of
the mainland, the
thousands of islands
within the Aegean
Sea, and the pockets
of settlements along
the western coast of
Asia Minor (presentday Turkey).
CLASSICAL GREECE
PERSIAN EMPIRE
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As the Persian Empire expanded, it came into
conflict with Greeks living in western Asia Minor
(Ionia).
Eventually, they conquered this area and
appointed tyrants to rule over the area. This was
counter to the independent nature of the Greeks.
In 499 B.C.E., the Ionian Greeks revolted against
the Persian Empire. They asked for the help of the
Athenians, who came to their aid.
The revolt was crushed with ease, but Darius the
Great (Cyrus the Great’s son) vowed to crush
Athens in revenge. (See Map)
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The wars took place in
two major waves of
attack by the Persians.
The “first” Persian
War included the
famous Battle of
Marathon. The
“second” Persian War
included battles like
Thermopylae, and
Salamis.
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The rise of Greek
civilization around 800
BCE was based off of the
strong city-states created.
Each city-state had its
own government,
typically a tyranny of
one ruler or an
aristocratic council. (#1)
Why did city-states
develop instead of a
unified nation?
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The peninsula of
Greece was so
divided by
mountains that a
unified
government
would have been
very difficult to
establish. (#1)
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Although the city-states were divided
geographically, they did tend to share common
cultural elements such as:
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Language – A rich written language derived from
Phoenician alphabet spread throughout peninsula
Trade – Trade between city-states was common.
Usually conducted via water routes.
Religious festivals – Olympic competitons.
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They DID NOT share similar governing styles.
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Sparta and Athens came to be the two leading
city-states.
Sparta represented a strong military
aristocracy.
Athens was a more diverse commercial state
that was proud of its artistic and intellectual
leadership.
During the impending Persian Wars, the two
city-states cooperated, although probably for
mere survival reasons.
ATHENS
SPARTA
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During the 5th century
Pericles dominated
Athenian politics, creating a
democratic political
structure where each citizen
could participate in
government. (Direct
democracy) (#2)
Citizens could participate in
order to select officials and
pass laws. (#2)
Political decline soon set in
for the city-states as Athens
and Sparta vied for control of
Greece during the
Peloponnesian Wars.
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After these wars weakened the city-states of Athens and
Sparta, the powerful king of Macedonia (a region just north
of Greece) named Philip II conquered both city-states.
His son, Alexander the Great, succeeded him and spread the
empire to Egypt, through the Middle East and into parts of
India.
He died at age 33, but not before mixing Greek culture with
Egyptian, Indian and Persian cultures. This came to be
known as Hellenistic culture. “Hellenistic” means Greeklike.
Trade and knowledge flourished under the Hellenistic
era. The exchange of goods and ideas between Greek,
Indian, Egyptian, and Persian cultures allowed for the
largest example of cultural diffusion up to this point in
history. (#3)
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The most famous
Hellenistic center
was the city
established by
and named after
Alexander in
Egypt,
Alexandria.
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The Roman state began as a local monarchy in
central Italy around 800 B.C.E.
Roman aristocrats succeeded in driving out
the monarchy in 509 B.C.E., and vowed to
never be ruled by a king again.
They established a republic, a form of
government where the power lies in the
hands of voters who elect officials and
representatives to rule on their behalf.
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As the power of the city-state continued to
grow, they eventually conquered the Italian
peninsula along with some Greek colonies.
Eventually they came into conflict with another
powerful Mediterranean city-state, Carthage.
The Phoenician city-state of Carthage was
located in northern Africa.
Rome and Carthage fought a series of three
wars from 264 to 146 BCE called the Punic
Wars. (Rome won and took control of the
western Mediterranean) (#5)
PUNIC WARS MAP
HANNIBAL
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The politics of the Roman republic grew
unstable as victorious generals sought even
greater power while the poor of the city
rebelled.
In 45 BCE, one of these generals, Julius Caesar,
won control of the Roman state, effectively
bringing an end to the republic.
After his assassination, another set of generals
fought for control. Eventually his grandnephew, Octavian (Augustus), won.
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“I had rather be first in a village than
second in Rome.”
“If you must break the law, do it to
seize power: in all other cases
observe it.”
“It is not these well-fed long-haired
men that I fear, but the pale and the
hungry-looking.”
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Augustus (Rome’s 1st
emperor) established
the basic structures of
an empire.
For the next 207 years
the Roman Empire
maintained peace and
prosperity throughout
the Med. World. (From
Augustus to Marcus
Aurelius)
This time period is
known as the Pax
Romana (Roman peace)
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During the time
of the Pax
Romana, the
empire grew
tremendously,
virtually covering
the entire
Mediterranean
World.
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Over the next 250
years, the empire
experienced a slow
and steady decline as
a result of several
contributing factors.
One of the main
factors was invasions
from outside tribes.
(Germanic tribes and
Huns) (#6) p.82
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Though the empire was
in decline, it still
experienced a few
strong leaders. (Ex.
Diocletian and
Constantine)
They tried to reverse the
tide of its ultimate fall.
Constantine adopted
the then somewhat
obscure religion of
Christianity in 313 CE.
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Politics were an extremely important part of
both Greek and Roman civilizations.
In fact, the word politics comes from the
Greek word for city-state, polis. This
reinforces that there were intense political
interests in Greece and Rome.
Both tended to emphasize aristocratic rule
but there were significant examples of
democratic elements as well.
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An intense preoccupation with politics that
included frequent discussions about affairs of
the city-state characterized politics in the
Mediterranean.
Citizens felt that the city-state was theirs and
they had an obligation to participate in its
governance.
It also helped that citizens were actively
involved in the military and that gave them a
heightened sense of pride.
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There was no single Greek political style, but
democracy is the most famous.
Democracy actually derives from the Greek
word demos, which means “the people”.
In Athens, major decisions of the state were
made by general assemblies where ALL
citizens could participate. (#8)
This is known as a direct democracy, cause
people rule or make decisions directly and not
through representatives.
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This term can be somewhat misleading when
referring to Greek politics however.
Although all citizens could participate in
politics, only a minority of people in Athens
were actually citizens. (#8)
Citizenship rights were not extended to all
(usually just landowners). For example,
women had no political rights, and foreigners
or slaves, who were not citizens, made up half
the adult population. (#8)
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Rome’s republic allowed citizens to
actively elect representatives (senators)
who would ideally operate in his
electors’ interests.
Citizens could not directly vote on laws
in Rome.
Athens’ democracy allowed its citizens
to vote directly on laws, hence the name
direct democracy.
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Romans emphasized
carefully crafted laws
to hold their vast
territories together.
The first law code of
the Roman republic
were introduced in
450 B.C.E., known as
the Twelve Tables.
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The laws restrained
upper classes from
arbitrary action.
Romans believed that
laws should be able to
evolve over time to meet
changing conditions.
Laws, instead of personal
whim should govern
people.
The Twelve Tables also
promoted a common
sense fairness. (Ex. p.86)
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Mediterranean governments are more well
known for the types of government systems
they established such as democracy and
republic than for their specific functions.
Nevertheless, here are some of those functions:
1) Maintaining law courts and military forces
(#11)
2) Regulating commerce (especially of
important crops like grain) (#11)
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3) Construction of vast public works projects
to facilitate trade and commerce, to provide
entertainment and distraction for its subjects,
to bring in fresh water (aqueducts), and for
religious purposes.
4) Provided cheap food, gladiator contests and
entertainment for the masses (bread and
circuses)
5) Governments also supported official state
religions and loyalty to the state through
religious festivals.
ROMAN SENATE
(MAINTAINING LAW)
ROMAN LEGIONARY
(MILITARY FORCES)
REGULATING
COMMERCE
ROMAN ROAD DESIGN
Roman
Harbors
* One Roman wrote
this: "So many
merchant ships arrive
in Rome with cargoes
from everywhere, at
all times of the
year, that the city
seems like the world's
warehouse.
* Wine, grain, and
exotic animals came
from all over the
Roman Empire.
ROMAN
ENTERTAINMENT
GREEK ENTERTAINMENT
PUBLIC BATHS
AQUEDUCTS
STATUE OF ZEUS
PARTHENON
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First of all, neither Greece nor Rome generated
a major world religion.
Greco-Roman religion was derived from a
belief in the spirits of nature (animism)
elevated into a complex system of gods and
goddesses.
Though there were different names for the
deities between Greece and Rome, they were
essentially the same.
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The gods were sought out by the people for
foretelling and advice on a whole host of issues
from health to harvest.
Greco-Roman gods were seen as in a much
more human nature than an out-of-this-world
approach. They were ascribed certain actions,
blunders, and behaviors that were passed
down in human stories about the gods known
as myths. As your book says, these were like
soap operas on a super-human scale.
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Greco-Roman religion lacked an intense spiritual
passion that failed to satisfy many “ordinary”
citizens such as peasants, artisans, and merchants.
It also provided little in the way of comfort during
times of economic distress or political chaos.
Though it did provide for political loyalty, it had
no basis for ethical and moral thought. Because of
this absence, Greek and Roman writers emerged to
stress the importance of ethical qualities like
moderation and balance in human behavior as
opposed to the excesses that were seen in the gods’
lives. Aristotle and Cicero were prime examples.
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Aristotle was one of
Greece’s most
famous
philosophers,
tutoring leading
Athenian citizens
and even Alexander
the Great.
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Greek philosophy emphasized the powers of
human thought. Questioning the conventional
wisdom of the time period in order to arrive at
the truth was a chief aim of Greco-Roman
philosophers like Socrates. Though he was
persecuted for encouraging this method, the
principle of rational inquiry (Socratic method)
became a major part of classical Greek
thinking.
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The main problem faced agriculturally by Greece
and Rome was in the fact that their soil conditions
were not well suited for large scale agricultural
crops like grain. The land was more suited for
crops such as grapes and olives, but these could
not feed the growing populations and took
considerable time to develop.
As a result, both societies looked to new areas for
access to grain production (Middle East, North
Africa, Sicily). This was one of the chief reasons for
empire expansion.
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Obviously, agricultural products (grain, olives,
grapes) were the main commodity traded.
Luxury products were also widely traded
among the Mediterranean, India, and China.
Mediterranean products were far less
sophisticated than those of east Asia, so instead
they traded luxury products like animal skins,
precious metals, and exotic animals for Asian
zoos in return for spices and artisan products
from the east.
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Merchants within Greco-Roman culture had a
somewhat ambiguous status. They generally
made up the second highest social class behind
landlords and patricians, but they were
typically foreigners who did not have
citizenship rights and were therefore not
entirely part of the culture. Overall, they were
in between the value of merchants in China
and India.
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Slavery was essential to Greco-Roman culture.
Neither civilizations could have functioned
without it. Athenians used slaves domestically
in the household as well as for extensive
mining of salt and silver. They were in both
societies the main labor force.
In Rome, their primary role was in agricultural
production. They were also used within the
house for domestic service, which included
tutoring of high-class children (usually done by
Greek slaves).
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Other duties included construction,
entertainment, and the sex industry.
Most historians believe slaves made
up close to half of the empire’s
population. The constant need for
slaves, which came from conquered
territories, promoted military
conquest.
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Abundant slave labor discouraged
innovative and more efficient
technological or agricultural
techniques. Greeks and Romans
tended to depend more on their
slaves to do the work for them
rather than come up with more
practical inventions or methods.
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1) Once it fell, it fell. There was no revival of
Roman culture or power like there was in
China.
2) Unlike India, there was no central religion to
hold it together or serve as a link between the
classical period and what followed.
3) Finally, Rome fell in some parts of the
Mediterranean more than it did in others. It
was not a uniform fall.