WHAT IS RHETORIC?
We can define rhetoric as the study of how people use language to speak and write effectively
and persuasively to appeal to a specific, identified audience, as in a persuasive essay or speech
or in a letter. In this definition we assume that, given a specific purpose (to convey a message,
an argument, a judgment, an attitude) and given a specific audience, a writer/speaker will make
conscious decisions to use a selected number of rhetorical strategies to accomplish that
purpose most effectively.
When we analyze rhetoric, we must ask the following questions:
 Who is the writer or speaker?
 Why and to whom has he or she chosen to write or speak these particular words on this
particular occasion?
 What does the writer or speaker mean to say in this text?
 How does the author convey his meaning?
WRITING THE RHETORICAL ANALYSIS
Simply put, a rhetorical analysis is a written explanation about HOW a writer (or speaker)
attempts to change the mind of his or her audience. An effective rhetorical analysis
demonstrates a full understanding of the interplay of the following elements:
The Subject /Issue – What topic is the writer or speaker responding to?
Purpose/Aim/Intention: What does the speaker or writer want his audience to understand,
think or feel as a result of reading the text or hearing the speech?
Audience: Next, one must understand the targeted audience, their knowledge, ideas, values,
and attitudes; Speaker and his Persona: How does the speaker perceive him/herself, as well
as how he/she wants the audience to perceive him/her.
Context – the time, place, people, events, and other motivations that influence how the rhetor
chooses appeals and strategies
Genre: - what type of text will help the rhetor achieve his/her purpose – speech, essay, letter,
editorial
Only after you define the rhetorical situation can you analyze the rhetorical strategies by
which it is achieved. Defining the rhetorical situation establishes the PURPOSE to which
the rhetorical strategies contribute, and only in tying strategy back to purpose are you
truly performing a rhetorical analysis.
For the AP rhetorical analysis, students are presented with a complete argument from a
published author. That author has a purpose or objective. That author has targeted an
audience. That author has chosen the strategies that he or she believes most effective.
Essentially, students write a paper that demonstrates their understanding of rhetorical process
at hand. Reading comprehension is crucial: Students must first recognize and understand the
author's purpose. Then, students have to read between the lines: What rhetorical strategies has
the author chosen and why?
Students should NOT see themselves as part of the audience. They should stand apart as
observers. They see the audience. They see the author. What is the author doing in order to
affect the minds of the audience?
What are "Rhetorical Strategies"?
A rhetorical strategy is anything that a writer does that has the potential to change the thoughts
or feelings of his audience. Consider the following (several will be detailed later):
• Figurative language (e.g., metaphors, similes): These creative comparisons can be used to
help the audience better visualize the author's ideas.
• Analogies (or comparisons in general)
• Emotional Appeals (how does the writer target the audience's emotions?)
• Logical Appeals (how does the writer target the audience's intelligence?)
• Attempts to establish the writer's credibility -how does the writer get the audience to trust or
believe in what he or she says?
• Use of repetition: If they repeat it often enough, people tend to believe it. Also, repetition aids
memory recall.
• Diction: Emotionally-charged words can be extremely effective. Also, a writer might use a
patterns of words to establish a theme or message.
• Standout sentences -that is, sentences designed to grab your attention
• Tone (consider how effective sarcasm can be)
• Cause-effect argumentation (if this happens, then....)
• Addressing the opposing viewpoints or objections
(I don't need to argue my position if I can show that the opposition's views are absurd)
• Use of historical precedents (this falls under analogies but is worth noting separately)
Use of historical, cultural, literary and biblical allusions (this falls under analogies but is worth
noting separately
• Contrast (sometimes a writer best shows his position by contrasting it to another, weaker view)
• Selection of Detail (remember, the person making the argument chooses what you see and
don't see)
Considering the Audience
Examine the prompt and passage for clues about the audience. What do we know about them?
Is it a general audience or a specific audience? What does the audience already know or think
about the topic at hand? What don't they know? What is the historical setting? (Might it have
any relevance?) Are there any significant events that the audience has recently experienced?
What seems to be the audience's attitude or mindset before the speech or essay begins?
Read the prompt carefully for clues about the audience. Any and all background information
given is designed to help you.
Identifying & Explaining Rhetorical Strategies
Poor papers are easy to spot: Five paragraphs. Introduction with thesis. Three body
paragraphs, each about one rhetorical strategy. And a conclusion that summarizes.
Here's the formula for a low-scoring paper:
The writer wants his audience to think he's right. To do this, he uses diction, selection of detail,
and figurative language.
The writer uses diction when....
The writer uses selection of detail when....
The writer uses figurative language to....
In conclusion, by using diction, selection of detail, and figurative language, the writer convinces
the audience to think he's right.
The writer may address relevant strategies, but the response as a whole suggests minimal
understanding. It's too simplistic in its reasoning.
It is important to understand that most strategies work together in combination. For example, in
an essay, the strategies of diction and selection of detail generally combine to establish the
speaker's persuasive attitude. For AP students, it would be redundant to present this
information in separate paragraphs (one on diction, the other on selection of detail).
Often, it is best to base paragraphs on the rhetorical intent as opposed to the rhetorical strategy.
For example, a writer intends to ridicule his subject. In order to accomplish this goal, he uses
the strategies of diction, selection of detail, and figurative language (e.g., similes). Write about
these three strategies in ONE paragraph detailing how they work together to ridicule the subject
and bring readers to the author's point of view.
A good rule of thumb is to make a brief list at the bottom of the page under the heading, "WHAT
THE WRITER WANTS...."
List out what the writer wants. These then become your paragraphs. Identify and explain all
strategies the writer uses (within that single paragraph) to accomplish that goal.
Writing About the Audience
Go back to the rhetorical triangle: It's all about the audience. The writer wants something: He
wants his or her audience to think or feel differently about something. Each analytical paragraph
should address the audience. HOW does the writer want the audience to think or feel? WHY
does he tell them the things he does? WHY might the audience's minds be changed?
End each body paragraph with an explanation on the probable effect on the audience, being
sure to emphasize WHY and HOW the writer's choices might bring about this effect.
The more words shared about the rhetorical effect on the audience, the higher the essay score.
The Constancy of Selection of Detail
Writers make choices. All word and details in the passage were chosen by its author. There are
reasons behind every choice. You don't need fancy terms for your analysis: Simply explain
WHY the author presented the information that he did.
You always have something to write about, as the author chose to include every word, fact, and
detail.
Diction + Detail = Tone
You always have this formula to write about. With what feeling or emotion does the writer
express himself? One's tone (or attitude) can be highly persuasive. A writer can use fear, anger,
sympathy, or love to move his or her audience. If you have nothing else to say, write a
paragraph about how the author conveys his or her attitude about the topic at hand.
Sequencing of Ideas: Follow the Developing Argument
A writer does not randomly present ideas. The sequencing of information is important. Consider
the Leonid Fridman prompt (a selection from "America Needs Its Nerds") from several years
ago. Fridman began by establishing that America has an anti-intellectual culture. He then
proposed that other countries--many of our rivals--have a pro-intellectual culture. He then ended
on a note of concern that we may fall behind our economic rivals, which surely would trigger the
end of American Supremacy.
The point would be that Fridman's essay had three distinct sections, each of which led to the
other. In writing a rhetorical analysis of Fridman's essay, a student should follow Fridman's
structure. ("First Fridman establishes ________ by _________; Then, he __________.")
Each stage of Fridman's argument becomes one paragraph. This is quite different from
structuring your essay around three rhetorical choices, such as metaphors, analogies, and
selective diction. But, when you yourself write an argument, do you build the argument through
rhetorical tools or do you build the argument through ideas? Of course it’s the latter! It's not your
metaphor that wins me over, it's the ideas conveyed through the metaphor.
So, don't have paragraphs about metaphors, analogies, etc. Have paragraphs that present a
stage in the author's argument and then illustrate how rhetorical choices (such as metaphors,
analogies, etc.) convey the author's intent.
Ending the Rhetorical Analysis
DO NOT SUMMARIZE OR RESTATE THE THESIS. Holistically address the author’s purpose.
Expound on the author’s intended effect on the audience. Do not reiterate strategies – talk
about the combined effect. Reflect on the significance of the author’s feelings/ideas/thoughts. If
the prompt asks for an evaluation of the author’s rhetorical effect, then end with such analysis.
Do NOT say something like, "In conclusion, the writer's many rhetorical strategies convince his
audience that....."