Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
The Principles of Effective Interventions
Results and Lessons Learned from Ohio
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 2
Credits
About the UCCI
The University of Cincinnati
Corrections Institute (UCCI) is
affiliated with the Division of
Criminal Justice at the University
of Cincinnati.
About the Authors
This training was developed by
Christopher T. Lowenkamp,
Ph.D., assistant director,
University of Cincinnati
Corrections Institute.
Copyright © 2004 University of Cincinnati Corrections Institutute. All Rights Reserved.
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 3
Sections of Presentation
1. Overview of effective interventions
2. Risk Principle
3. Need Principle
4. Treatment Principle
5. Program Integrity
6. What we found in Ohio
7. Summary
Effective
EffectiveInterventions…Lessons
Interventions…LessonsLearned
Learned
Slide 4
Section 1
Principles of Effective Interventions
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 5
Principles of Effective Interventions
= Risk Principle (Who)—Higher risk offenders
= Need Principle (What)—Criminogenic needs
= Treatment Principle (How)—Use behavioral approaches
= Specific Responsivity (How)—Matching
=Program Integrity(All of the above and then some)—Quality
Effective
EffectiveInterventions…Lessons
Interventions…Lessons
Learned
Learned
Slide 6
Section 2
Risk Principle
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 7
The Risk Principle
1. Target those offenders with a higher probability of recidivism
2. Provide most intensive treatment to higher risk offenders
3. Intensive treatment for lower risk offenders can increase
recidivism
Play Audio:
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 8
Risk Factors and What It Means To Be High
Risk—How to Target High Risk
1. Attitudes, values, and beliefs
2. Friends
3. History of antisocial behavior
4. Personality
5. Employment
6. Family
7. Substance abuse
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 9
The Risk Principle and Correctional Intervention
Change In Recidivism Rates
25
20
19
15
10
5
-4
0
-5
High Risk
Dowden & Andrews, 1999
Low Risk
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 10
The Risk Principle and Community Supervision
47
Recidivism Rates
50
40
33
30
25
19
20
10
0
High Risk
Low Risk
ISP
Hanley, 2003
Regular
EffectiveInterventions…Lessons
Interventions…Lessons
Learned
Effective
Learned
Slide 11
Section 3
Need Principle
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 12
The Need Principle
1. Assess and identify criminogenic needs
2. Target criminogenic needs.
3. Must be focused intervention.
4. If this is followed recidivism rates can be lowered.
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 13
Criminogenic Needs
1. Family
6. Prosocial modeling
2. Vocational skills and
employment
7. Antisocial attitudes
3. Anger
4.Self control
8. Substance abuse
treatment
9. Reducing antisocial
peer contacts
5. Self management skills
10. Relapse prevention
Andrews and Dowden, 1999
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 14
Non-Criminogenic Needs
1. Stress and/or anxiety
1. Vague emotional
problems
2. Self-esteem
3. Cohesiveness of peer
group
6. Fear of official
punishment
7. Physical activity
4. Discipline
8. Creativity
Andrews and Dowden, 1999
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 15
The Need Principle Seems Straightforward,
but…
1. Look at the targets of programs from around the country
1. Offenders lack creativity
2. Offenders need to get back to nature
3. It worked for me
4. Offenders lack discipline
5. Offenders lack organization skills
6. We just want them to be happy
7. Treat offenders like babies and dress them in diapers
8. Offenders need to have a pet in prison
9. Offenders need acupuncture
10. Offenders need a better diet
11. Offenders need to learn how to put on makeup and dress
better
12. Male offenders need to get in touch with their feminine
side
Latessa, Cullen, Gendreau, 2002
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 16
The Need Principle Seems Straightforward,
but…
1. Look at “creative sentences” judges are coming up with around
the country
1. Yoga
2. Tai Chi
3. Writing “I will not do stupid things” 2500 times
4. Dressing up like victim (in a dress) and being forced to
walk around downtown
5. Jogging for an hour for trying to run from police
6. Listening to music or reading
7. Carrying a photograph of the victim in wallet
USA Today, February 23, 2004
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 17
The Need Principle and Correctional
Intervention
Change In Recidivism Rates
35
31
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
-5
Target 1- 3 more
criminogenic needs
Gendreau, French, and Taylor, 2002
Target at least 4-6 more
criminogenic needs
EffectiveInterventions…Lessons
Interventions…Lessons
Learned
Effective
Learned
Slide 18
Section 4
Treatment Principle
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 19
The Treatment Principle
1. The most effective interventions are behavioral
1. Focus on current factors that influence behavior
2. Action oriented
3. Offender behaviors are appropriately reinforced
2. The most effective behavioral models are
1. Social learning—practice new skills and behaviors
2. Cognitive behavioral approaches that target criminogenic
needs
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 20
Key Concepts of Cognitive Theories
–
Thinking affects behavior
–
Antisocial, distorted, unproductive irrational thinking causes
antisocial and unproductive behavior
–
Thinking can be influenced and changed
–
We can change how we feel and behave by changing what we
think
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 21
Implications of Theories to Treatment
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 22
Ineffective Approaches
1. Talking cures
2. Drug education
3. Bibliotherapy
4. Self-help programs
5. Medical model
6. Self esteem
7. Punishing smarter programs
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 23
The Treatment Principle and Correctional
Intervention
Change In Recidivism Rates
30
24
25
20
15
10
4
5
0
-5
Non-Behavioral
Dowden and Andrews, 2000
Behavioral
EffectiveInterventions…Lessons
Interventions…Lessons
Learned
Effective
Learned
Slide 24
Section 5
Program Integrity
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 25
Program Integrity
1. Includes principles discussed and more
1. Staff, assessment practices, evaluation
2. Can be measured using the Correctional Program
Assessment Inventory
1. Instrument measures implementation, assessment,
treatment, staff, evaluation, and other miscellaneous
factors related to program integrity
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 26
Program Integrity
1. Some research has been done linking the degree of program
integrity (as measured by a CPAI based measure) to the
program’s ability to reduce recidivism
2. Studies with juvenile programs and adult programs
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 27
ART Program Integrity and Program Effects
Adjusted Recidivism Rates
30
27
25
25
19
20
15
10
5
0
-5
Control
Barnoski and Aos 2004
ART
Competently
Delivered
ART Not
Competently
Delivered
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 28
FFT Program Integrity and Program Effects
Adjusted Recidivism Rates
35
30
32
27
25
20
17
15
10
5
0
-5
Control
Barnoski and Aos 2004
FFT
Competently
Delivered
FFT Not
Competently
Delivered
EffectiveInterventions…Lessons
Interventions…LessonsLearned
Learned
Effective
Slide 29
Section 6
Findings From Ohio
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 30
Ohio’s CBCF/HWH Study
1. Largest study of community based correctional treatment
programs ever done
2. Total of 13,221 offenders—38 HWH and 15 CBCF
3. Two year follow up on all offenders
4. Recidivism measures included any new arrest and
incarceration in a state prison
5. Also examined program characteristics
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 31
Experimental and Comparison Groups
1. Parole with HWH
2. Parole violators with HWH
3. Transitional Control with HWH
4. Furlough with HWH
5. CBCF Probation
6. Comparison group parole without HWH placement
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 32
Measure of Risk
1. Risk score based on 14 factors
2. Age, education, marital status, psychological problems,
drug/alcohol problems, employment, criminal history, and
current offense
3. Recidivism rate for low risk 18%, for high risk 58%
EffectiveInterventions…Lessons
Interventions…LessonsLearned
Learned
Effective
Slide 33
Section 6a
What Did We Find With Regard to the Risk
Principle?
2
-11
-29
-30
-20
-20
-10-10
-10
3 3 3
12 12 12
11 11
10 10
9 9
8
10
7 7 7
6
5 5
0
0
-1
-5 -5 -5 -5
Probability of Reincarceration
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 34
The Risk Principle—All Offenders
30
25
15
16
17 17
20
21
-16
-24
-40
LL
m
ra HH
og
Pr gram EE
o
Pr gram Y
o
Pr gram AA
o
Pr gram GG
o
Pr gram JJ
o
Pr ram DD
og
Pr gram CC
o
Pr gram II
o
Pr ram FF
og
Pr gram MM
o
Pr gram Z
o
Pr r am V
og
Pr gram S
o
Pr gram Q
o
Pr gram BB
o
Pr gram X
o
Pr gram L
o
Pr r am O
og
Pr gram All
o
Pr ram N
og
Pr gram R
o
Pr r am K
og
Pr gram H
o
Pr gram M
o
Pr gram KK
o
Pr gram U
o
Pr gram W
o
Pr gram P
o
Pr gram G
o
Pr gram C
o
Pr gr am I
o
Pr ram E
og
Pr gram J
o
Pr ram D
og
Pr gram F
o
Pr gram B
o
Pr r am A
og
Pr gram
o
Pr
-7 -7
-29 -29
-30
-15
-16
-4 -4 -4
-5
-6
-10
-11 -11 -11
-20
-21 -21 -21 -21
Probability of Reincarceration
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 35
The Risk Principle—Low Risk
-1
-2 -2 -2
1
1
1
0
4
4
3
3
2
6
5
9
8
10
0
-32
-36
-40
A
A
m
ra E
og E
Pr ram Y
og
Pr ram H
og H
Pr ram LL
og
Pr ram L
og
Pr ram Q
og
Pr ram B
og B
Pr ram K
og
Pr ram G
og G
Pr ram Z
og
Pr ram N
og
Pr ram V
og
Pr ram D
og D
Pr ram II
og
Pr ram S
og
Pr ram O
og
Pr ram ll
og A
Pr ram M
og
Pr ram P
og
Pr ram FF
og
Pr ram I
og
Pr ram MM
og
Pr ram
og R
Pr ram JJ
og
Pr ram X
og
Pr ram E
og
Pr ram U
og
Pr ram G
og
Pr ram
og W
Pr ram J
og
Pr ram D
og
Pr ram A
og
Pr ram K
og K
Pr ram F
og
Pr ram CC
og
Pr ram B
og
Pr ram
og
Pr
0
-4
-12
-19
-20
-11-11
-10-10
-10
-6
-7
-3
-1 -1 -1
-14-14
Probability of Reincarceration
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 36
The Risk Principle—Low/Moderate Risk
20
1
0
4 4
3 3
2
7
6
5 5 5
10 10
9 9
8
10
11 11
13
-23-23
-30
-36
-34
-40
LL
m
ra H
og
Pr gram AA
o
Pr gram Y
o
Pr gram HH
o
Pr gram EE
o
Pr gram CC
o
Pr ram C
og
Pr gram K
o
Pr gram II
o
Pr gram Q
o
Pr gram GG
o
Pr gram Z
o
Pr gram L
o
Pr gram DD
o
Pr gram BB
o
Pr gram S
o
Pr ram N
og
Pr gram V
o
Pr gram FF
o
Pr ram O
og
Pr gram All
o
Pr ram M
og
Pr gram R
o
Pr gram X
o
Pr gram MM
o
Pr gram I
o
Pr gram JJ
o
Pr gram E
o
Pr gram P
o
Pr ram G
og
Pr gram U
o
Pr gram W
o
Pr ram KK
og
Pr gram J
o
Pr ram D
og
Pr gram A
o
Pr gram F
o
Pr ram B
og
Pr gram
o
Pr
-28
-30
-20
-17
-20
-13
-14
-6
-7 -7
-10
-1
-2
-3
2
1 1 1
0
6 6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
0
Probability of Reincarceration
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 37
The Risk Principle—Moderate Risk
30
26
10
9 9 9
8 8
10
13 13 13
12
19
18
20
-26
-40
LL
m
ra H
og H
Pr ram II
og
Pr ram AA
og
Pr ram Y
og
Pr ram G
og G
Pr ram DD
og
Pr ram FF
og
Pr ram CC
og
Pr ram Z
og
Pr ram KK
og
Pr ram H
og
Pr ram JJ
og
Pr ram Q
og
Pr ram
og S
Pr ram MM
og
Pr ram BB
og
Pr ram V
og
Pr ram L
og
Pr ram X
og
Pr ram All
og
Pr ram R
og
Pr gram N
o
Pr ram EE
og
Pr ram K
og
Pr ram
og M
Pr ram O
og
Pr ram
og W
Pr ram U
og
Pr ram G
og
Pr ram I
og
Pr ram C
og
Pr gram P
o
Pr ram J
og
Pr ram E
og
Pr ram
og F
Pr ram D
og
Pr ram
og B
Pr ram A
og
Pr ram
og
Pr
-15 -14
-18 -17
-20
-6 -5
-8
-10
-10
5
2 3 3 3
10 10
7 8 8 8
10
15
12 12 12 13 13
0
-2 -2
Probability of Reincarceration
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 38
The Risk Principle—High Risk
40
19
21 22
20
24 25 25
27
30
30
34
32 33
-30
-34
-40
M
M
m
ra LL
og
Pr gram KK
o
Pr gram JJ
o
Pr ram II
og
Pr gram HH
o
Pr ram GG
og
Pr gram FF
o
Pr gram EE
o
Pr ram DD
og
Pr gram CC
o
Pr gram BB
o
Pr ram AA
og
Pr gram Z
o
Pr gram Y
o
Pr ram X
og
Pr ram W
og
Pr gram V
o
Pr gram U
o
Pr ram S
og
Pr gram All
o
Pr ram R
og
Pr gram Q
o
Pr ram P
og
Pr gram N
o
Pr ram M
og
Pr ram O
og
Pr ram L
og
Pr gram K
o
Pr ram J
og
Pr gram I
o
Pr gram H
o
Pr gram G
o
Pr ram F
og
Pr gram E
o
Pr gram D
o
Pr ram C
og
Pr gram B
o
Pr gram A
o
Pr ram
og
Pr
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 39
Why Did This Happen?
1. Think about what it means to be low risk
2. Who else is in the HWH/CBCF programs around the state?
3. What happens to low risk offenders risk level?
EffectiveInterventions…Lessons
Interventions…LessonsLearned
Learned
Effective
Slide 40
Section 6b
What Did We Find With Regard to the Need
Principle?
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 41
Change in Recidivism Rates
The Need Principle
7
8
5
2
-2
-3
0 to 3
4 to 6
7 or more
Number of Criminogenic Services
Negative numbers indicate increases in recidivism. Overall correlations between the number of programs
offered and treatment effect is 0.13, while the correlation between the number of criminogenic services
offered and treatment effect is 0.23
EffectiveInterventions…Lessons
Interventions…LessonsLearned
Learned
Effective
Slide 42
Section 6c
What Did We Find With Regard to the Treatment
Principle?
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 43
The Treatment Principle
Change In Recidivism Rates
10
5
9
0
-5
-10
-9
Other
Cognitive
Behavioral
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 44
The Treatment Principle
Change In Recidivism Rates
15
10
13
5
6
2
0
-4
-5
Role Play
Practice
EffectiveInterventions…Lessons
Interventions…LessonsLearned
Learned
Effective
Slide 45
Section 6d
What Did We Find With Regard to Program
Integrity?
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 46
Measure of Program Integrity
1. Measures based on CPAI
2. Measures based on staff surveys
3. Measures based on data from offender database
4. A total of 157 items on program integrity
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 47
Program Implementation
1. Director education and experience
2. Director being involved in training and delivering the
program
3. Program valued by community
4. Program valued by the CJ community
5. Sustainable funding
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 48
Assessment
1. Receive appropriate clients
2. Assess risk factors
3. Assess need factors
4. Use standardized methods
5. Define risk and need levels
6. Reassess before termination with a standardized
instrument
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 49
Treatment
1. Cognitive behavioral programming and targeting criminogenic
needs
2. Role playing
3. Practice new skills
4. Supervised during treatment and in community
5. Varied service and length of stay by risk
6. Kept occupied 40-70% of time
7. Standard completion criteria
8. Provided aftercare
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 50
Staff Characteristics
1. Area of study
2. Program input
3. Personal qualities
4. Ongoing training
5. Percent with college degree
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 51
Evaluation
1. Recidivism follow-up
2. Outcome evaluations
3. External quality assurance
4. File reviews
5. Pre/post testing
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 52
Miscellaneous
1. Mixed facilities
2. Years in operation
3. Program capacity
4. Average age of offenders
5. All female facilities
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 53
Program Integrity—Relationship Between
Program Integrity Score And Treatment Effect
Change In Recidivism Rates
25
20
15
22
10
5
10
5
0
-5
-10
-19
-15
-20
0-30(2)
31-59(25)
60-69(10)
70+(1)
EffectiveInterventions…Lessons
Interventions…LessonsLearned
Learned
Effective
Slide 54
Section 7
Summary
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 55
Risk
1. Assessment should be done as early on in the CJ process as
possible
2. Assessment should be conducted using a standard risk and
need assessment
3. Sentences should be based on that assessment
4. Supervision should be based on that assessment
5. Referrals for service should be based on that assessment
6. Should be targeting HIGH RISK OFFENDERS for most
intensive services
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 56
Need
1. Supervision and programming should focus on targeting
criminogenic needs
2. Sentences should focus on the need principle whenever
possible
3. Needs to be targeted should be identified by risk/need
assessment—not a one size fits all approach
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 57
Treatment
1. Programming should be behavioral, cognitivebehavioral, or based on social learning
2. Should use role playing and practice
3. Should provide supervision during sessions
4. Probation departments around the country are now
delivering cognitive-behavioral interventions on their
own rather than relying on external resource providers
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Slide 58
Program Integrity
1. IT MATTERS
2. It can be measured
3. It can be changed
4. Good programs (based on sound theory) can
substantially reduce recidivism, however, the same
program poorly implemented can actually increase
recidivism!
EffectiveInterventions…Lessons
Interventions…LessonsLearned
Learned
Effective
Slide 59
Section 7
How Does Community Supervision Fit?
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Specific Responsivity
Easiest to think of as “barriers” to treatment
Motivation is becoming one of the more important
considerations
Motivational enhancement, motivation interviewing, or pretreatment programming
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Stages Of Change
Termination
PreContemplation
Relapse
Maintenance
Contemplation
Action
Preparation
Prochaska’s “Stages of Change” Taken from: Miller, Duncan and Hubble (1999), “The Heart
& Soul of Change”, American Psychological Association.
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Agency Response
Pre-contemplation
Raise doubts, examine
discrepancies
Contemplation
Tip decisional balance toward
change
Preparation
Clarify goals, TX plan, reduce
barriers, enlist support
Action
Engage in TX, support change,
new reinforcers
Maintenance
Support lifestyle changes, relapse
prevention
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Motivational Enhancement
Motivation to change can be increased through
– Assessment
– Case planning
– Or other early meeting
– Offenders in jail are probably pretty motivated to
change
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Assessment
• Good assessment needs to be conducted to
effectively sentence, supervise, and intervene with
offenders
• Pretrial programs that offer services to reduce risk of
reoffending need to survey criminogenic risk factors
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Community Supervision
•
Assessment
•
Motivational enhancement
•
Provision of treatment services
•
System approach
– Responsibility for some but not all
– Takes into account what other agencies in process need
and do with offenders
– Takes into account what needs to be done by the
system to reduce offending behavior and increase public
safety
EffectiveInterventions…Lessons
Interventions…LessonsLearned
Learned
Effective
Slide 66
Section 8
Implementation?
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Implementing a New Idea
•
•
•
•
Consider how dramatic a shift these ideas are
Need to consider organizational attributes
• There are assessments for this
Research suggests that dealing with these issues assists in
technology transfer
Integrating research with practice
• Exposure
• Adoption
• Implementation
• Practice
D. Dwayne Simpson. 2002. Organizational readiness for treatment innovations. Texas
Christian University. www.ibr.tcu.edu.
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Exposure
•
•
•
•
Accomplished through training
Involves
• Staff
• Lecture
• Self study
• Workshop
• Consultant
Must have motivation to change and resources
Convenience (time and place) also an issue
D. Dwayne Simpson. 2002. Organizational readiness for treatment innovations. Texas
Christian University. www.ibr.tcu.edu.
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Adoption
•
•
Reception and perception of perceived utility
Decision to go with it
• Adequacy of training
• Perceived ease of use
• How well it fits with other roles, agency, and staff
abilities
D. Dwayne Simpson. 2002. Organizational readiness for treatment innovations. Texas
Christian University. www.ibr.tcu.edu.
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Implementation
•
•
•
Adequate resources and appropriate atmosphere for change
Climate for change
• Clarity of mission and goals
• Staff cohesion
• Communication
• Openness to change
Institutional supports
• Monitoring
• Feedback
• Rewards that reinforce positive change
D. Dwayne Simpson. 2002. Organizational readiness for treatment innovations. Texas
Christian University. www.ibr.tcu.edu.
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Practice
•
•
Long term use
Staff attributes
• Professional growth
• Efficacy
• Influence
• Adaptability
D. Dwayne Simpson. 2002. Organizational readiness for treatment innovations. Texas
Christian University. www.ibr.tcu.edu.
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Assessments
•
•
Organizational Readiness for Change
• Motivation for Change
• Resources
• Staff Attributes
• Organizational Climate
Program Training Needs
• Training Areas
• Barriers to Training
• Available Resources
D. Dwayne Simpson. 2002. Organizational readiness for treatment innovations. Texas
Christian University. www.ibr.tcu.edu.
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Organizational Readiness for Change
•Motivation for Change
•Program Needs
•Training Needs
•Pressures for Change
•Staff Attributes
•Growth
•Efficacy
•Influence
•Orientation
•Adaptability
•Resources
•Offices
•Staffing
•Training
•Computer Access
•e-Communications
•Organizational Climate
•Mission
•Cohesion
•Autonomy
•Communication
•Stress
•Change
D. Dwayne Simpson. 2002. Organizational readiness for treatment innovations. Texas
Christian University. www.ibr.tcu.edu.
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Summary
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Have a pretty good idea of what works and what doesn’t to
reduce criminal recidivism
Should be implemented across all aspects of the corrections
system
Agencies should collaborate and take a systems approach
Prior to moving forward assess staff and agency before
jumping in
• Assess and overcome barriers
Have a plan and let staff guide that plan to some degree
• Share the plan
• Realistic
• What will change
Evaluate what has been accomplished
• Quality assurance
Evaluate impacts
• Outcomes
Effective Interventions…Lessons Learned
Always Remember……….
As Max Planck the physicist lamented:
“….a new scientific truth does not triumph by convincing its
opponents and making them see the light, but rather
because its opponents eventually die, and a new generation
grows up that is familiar with it.”
Even with the most resistant staff and agencies there is still
hope