Pollution
25-30% of your APES Exam
Air Pollution
• Primary pollutants are emitted directly into the air from
natural sources such as volcanoes, mobile sources (cars), or
stationary sources (factories)
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Particulate matter (PM)
Nitric oxide (NO) Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) and Carbon Monoxide (CO)
• Secondary Pollutants result from the reaction of primary
pollutants in the atmosphere to form a new pollutant.
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Sulfur Trioxide SO3
Ozone
PANS
Sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
Major Air Pollutants
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)
• Forms when fuels are burned at high temps.
Also results from forest fires, volcanoes,
lightening and bacterial action in the soil
• Forms Nitric Acid (HNO3) in the air and
contributes to acid deposition and cultural
eutrophication.
• Results in lung irritation and damage,
suppresses plant growth and may be a
carcinogen.
Ozone (O3)
• Major component in photochemical smog
• Formed by sunlight reacting with NOx and
VOCs in the air
• Causes lung irritation and damage, bronchial
constriction, coughing, wheezing, and eye
irritation.
• Damages plants, rubber and plastic.
• BASIC Formula: O + O2  O3
Peroxyacyl Nitrates (PAN)
• PANS are a secondary pollutant formed from the reaction of various
hydrocarbons combining with oxygen and nitrogen dioxide and
being catalyzed by UV radiation from the sun.
• Since they dissociate quite slowly in the atmosphere into radicals
and NO2, PANs are able to transport these unstable compounds far
away from the urban and industrial origin
• PANs transport NOx to regions where it can more efficiently
produce Ozone.
• At a concentration of only a few particles per billion, they cause eye
irritation
• At higher concentrations they cause extensive damage to
vegetation.
• Hydrocarbons + O2 + NO2+ Light CH3COOONO2
(PAN)
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)
• Produced by burning high-sulfur oil or coal,
smelting of metals, and paper manufacturing.
• Combines with water vapor in the air to
produce acid rain, which reduced productivity
in plants
• Causes breathing difficulties.
• Significant decreases in concentration and
emissions since the US formed the Acid Rain
Program and the Clean Air Act.
Suspended Particulate Matter (PM10)
• PMs are particles with a diameter 1/7 the width
of human hair
• Includes: Smoke, dust, diesel soot, lead and
asbestos
• Leading cause in lung irritation and damage
• Many are known mutagens, teratogens and
carcinogens.
• Reduction of PM would produce health benefits
10X greater than similar reduction in ALL other
air pollutants combined.
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC)
• Include organic compounds that have a high vapor pressure
• Over 600 identified compounds
• Examples: toluene, xylene, formaldehyde, benzene and
acetone
• Found in paints, aerosol sprays, dry-cleaning fluids, and
industrial solvents.
• Causes respiratory irritation and damage
• Most are carcinogenic and cause liver, kidney and central
nervous system damage
• Concentrations of VOCs may be 1,000X greater indoors
than outside.
Smog
• 2 forms: industrial and photochemical
• Industrial: tends to be sulfur-based and
sometimes called Grey-air smog.
• Photochemical: catalyzed by UV radiation and
tends to be nitrogen-based. Also called
brown-air smog
Formation of Industrial Smog
Step
Chemical Reaction
2. Unburned carbon ends up as soot or
particulate matter (PM)
C + O2  CO2
C + O2  CO
C
3. Sulfur in oil and coal reacts with oxygen
gas to produce sulfur dioxide.
S + O2  SO2
4. Sulfur dioxide reacts with oxygen gas to
produce sulfur trioxide
SO2 + O2  SO3
5. Sulfur trioxide reacts with water vapor
in the air to form sulfuric acid.
SO3 + H2O  H2SO4
1. Carbon in coal or oil is burned in oxygen
gas to produce carbon dioxide and carbon
monoxide gas.
6. Sulfuric acid reacts with atmospheric
ammonia to form brown, solid ammonium
sulfate.
H2SO4 + NH3  (NH4)2SO4
Formation of Photochemical Smog
Time
Reason
Formulas
6 AM – 9 AM
As people drive to work, concentration
of NOx and VOCs increase
N2 + O2  2NO
NO + VOCs  NO2
NO2 –UV NO + O
9 AM- 11 AM
As traffic decreases NOx and VOCs begin 2NO + O2  2NO2
to react forming nitrogen dioxide
11 AM – 4 PM As light becomes more intense, Nitrogen NO2 –UV NO + O
dioxide is broken down and ozone
O2 + O  O3
increases
4 PM
Nitrogen dioxide also reacts with water
vapor to produce nitric acid and nitric
oxide.
3NO2 + H2O  2HNO3 +
NO
Nitrogen dioxide also reacts with VOCs
to produce toxic PANs
NO2 + VOC  PAN
As the sun goes down the production is
stopped
NO + VOC + O2 + UV light  O3 + PAN
Acid Deposition- Wet
• Wet deposition refers to acidic rain, fog and
snow.
• As this acidic water flows over and through
the ground it affects a variety of plants and
animals
• The strength depends on many factors
– How acidic the water is
– Chemistry and buffering capacity of soils
– Types of organisms that rely on water and soil
Acid Deposition- Dry
• Dry deposition refers to acidic gases and
particles
• About half of the acidity in the atmosphere
comes from dry deposition
• Wind blows these acidic particles and gases
on buildings, cars, homes and trees,
• They can also be washed from these surfaces
to add to wet deposition
Acid Deposition- Sulfur Dioxide
• Sulfur dioxide enters the atmosphere from
burning coal and oil, organic decay, ocean
spray and smelting
• It combines with water vapor to form
sulfurous acid ( SO2 + H2O  H2SO3)
• The sulfurous acid reacts with oxygen to form
sulfuric acid (H2SO3 + ½ O2  H2SO4)
Acid Deposition- Nitrogen Oxides
(NOx)
• NOx formed from burning oil, coal and natural
gas. Also, volcanoes, forest fires, bacterial
action, lightening.
• Nitrogen Monoxide (NO) reacts with oxygen to
produce Nitrogen Dioxide (NO + ½ O2  NO2)
• Nitrogen dioxide reacts with water vapor in
the air to form nitrous and nitric acids
• ( 2NO2 + H2O  HNO2 + HNO3)
Acid Rain’s Impacts
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Acidification of lakes and streams
Damages trees at high elevations
Creates unhealthy soil for microorganisms and decomposers
Acid Shock (rapid melting of snow releasing acidic particles) causes
a 5-10X increase in acid in waterways than acid rain alone
Accelerates the decay of paints and building materials (statues and
monuments)
Leeches important nutrients (Ca, K, Mg) from soils
Leeches heavy metals out of rocks (Pb, Cd and Hg)
Prior to falling to earth, SO2 and NOx gases and PM derivatives
(sulfates and nitrates) contribute to breathing difficulties and other
health problems
Urban Heat Islands
• Occur in metropolitan areas that are significantly warmer than their
surroundings (around 10 F warmer)
• Since warmer air can hold more water, rainfall can be 30% greater.
• Buildings and concrete reduce the radiation of urban heat to the
night sky
• Thermal properties of surface materials (bricks, concrete and
asphalt) store heat longer.
• Lack of vegetation and standing water also increases temperatures
• Buildings block winds that remove heat through convection
• Human activities (cars, AC units, and industry) increase heat
• The need to run AC units drives up cost and energy availability.
• High levels of pollution in urban areas an also create a localized
greenhouse effect.
• 1,000 people die each year due to excessive heat
Urban Heat Islands
• Secondary effects on local meteorology,
including altering local wind patterns and the
development of clouds and fog. Also effects
the number of lightening strikes and rate or
precipitations
• The heat island effect can be slightly reduced
by using white or reflective building materials
and incorporating more parks.
Temperature Inversion
• When the air temp increases high above the ground as
opposed to the normal decrease in temp with height.
• This effect can trap pollution close to the ground
• This can have adverse effects on human health (asthma,
emphysema and increased lung cancers)
• Temperature inversions commonly happen at night when
solar heating ceases and the surface cools which then cools
the atmosphere immediately above it.
• A warm air mass then moves over a colder one keeping the
air trapped and still.
• Dust and pollutant concentrations increase
• A nearly permanent temperature inversion happens over
Antarctica
Case Study
• In 1948, 20 people asphyxiated and over 7,000
were hospitalized in Donora, PA.
• Smog from the local zinc and steel smelting
plants settled in the valley where the town is
located.
• 4 days later the winds finally cleared the toxins
away
• This resulted in the first meaningful federal and
state laws to control air pollution and marked the
beginning of modern efforts to assess and deal
with health threats from air pollution
Indoor Air Pollution
• Inside air pollution can be 25-60% greater than they
are outside.
• The most common indoor air pollutants are
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Mold
Bacteria
Carbon monoxide
Radon
Allergens
Asbestos
Tobacco smoke
Formaldehyde
VOCs
Sick Building Syndrome
• Used to describe a commination of ailments (a
syndrome) associated with an individuals place of work
or residence
• Up to 1/3 of new and remodeled buildings worldwide
have SBS
• The pollutants are released from carpeting, adhesives
and particleboard
• OR from flaws in heating, ventilation and AC (HVAC)
systems
• Symptoms include: headaches, breathing difficulties,
allergies, asthma, cancer, emphysema and various
nerve disorders
Remediation and Reduction of Air
Pollution
1. Emphasizing tax incentives for pollution control
rather than fines and penalties
2. Setting legislative standards for energy efficiency
3. Increasing funding for research into renewable
energy
4. Incorporating incentives for reducing air
pollution into trade policies
5. Distributing solar cook stoves to developing
countries to replace coal and firewood
Remediation and Reduction of Air
Pollution
6. Phasing out two-cycle gasoline engines
7. For issues involving sick building syndrome: (a)
modify building codes to control materials used in
construction (b) replace and repair areas that have
water damage to control mold (c) use paints,
adhesives, solvents, and cleaning products in well
ventilated areas (d) increasing number of complete
air exchanges in building (e) ensure proper
maintenance of HVAC systems
8. Provide incentives to use mass transit
Reducing Acid Rain
• Designing more efficient engines to reduce NOx
• Increasing the efficiency of coal burning power
plants to reduce SOx, NOx, and PM
• Using scrubbers and advanced filtration on
smokestacks, electrostatic precipitators, and
staged and catalytic burners with after burners.
• Increasing penalties on stationary sources that do
not reduce emissions, providing tax incentives to
companies that DO reduce emissions, and to
customers who purchase Energy Star appliances
• Increasing CAFE standards.
Corporate Average Fuel
Economy (CAFE)
• regulations in the United States, first enacted
by the U.S. Congress in 1975, in the wake of
the Arab Oil Embargo and were intended to
improve the average fuel
economy of cars and light
trucks (trucks, vans and sport utility vehicles)
produced for sale in the United States.
EPA’s Acid Rain Program
• Designed to achieve significant environmental and
public health benefits through reductions in emissions
of SO2 and NOx.
• Allowance trading system
• Opt-in program that allows non-affected industrial and
small utility units to participate in allowance trading
• Setting new NOx emissions standards
• Permit process that affords maximum flexibility in
selecting cost-effective approaches to reducing
pollution
• Continuous emission monitoring (CEM)
Clean Air Act
• Originally signed into law in 1963
• Early visions allowed states to set their own
standards
• Later visions switched responsibility of setting
standards to the Federal Government
• Primary standards protect human health
• Secondary standards protect materials, crops,
climate, visibility and personal comfort.
Clean Air Act
Notice the increase in NOx and PM
Pollutant
% Change
Pb
-96%
VOC
-42%
SO2
-37%
CO
-31%
NOx
+17%
PM
+226%
Kyoto Protocol
• Would have required US to reduce greenhouse emissions
by 7% of 1990 levels over 5 years
• Under the agreement, US would have faced penalties if it
didn’t make the cuts
• US saw this goal as unattainable since CO2 and greenhouse
gases continue to increase and are projected to increase for
the next 20 years.
• US also thought the standards were not the same for
developing nations
• Also thought that the cost of meeting the targets was too
high, the timeframe was too short, and that there was no
correlation between greenhouse gases and global warming
Relevant Laws and Protocols
• Air Pollution Control Act (1955): first piece of federal
legislation regarding air pollution. Identified air pollution as
a national problem and announced that research and
additional steps to improve the situation needed to be
taken. It made the nation more aware of the problem
• Clean Air Act (1963): Dealt with reducing air pollution by
setting emission standards. Didn’t take into account mobile
sources, just secondary sources. Also set standards for auto
emissions, expanded local air pollution control programs,
set air quality standards and compliance deadlines for
stationary source emissions. Authorized research in lowemission fuels and cars.
Relevant Laws and Protocols
• National Environmental Policy Act (1969):
Requires a systematic analysis of major federal
actions. Includes a consideration of all reasonable
alternatives and looked at short-term and longterm, irretrievable, irreversible and unavoidable
impacts.
• Clean Air Act (1970): Established new primary
and secondary standards. Set new limits on
emissions from stationary and mobile sources
enforced by state and federal governments.
Increases funds for air pollution research.
Relevant Laws and Protocols
• Montreal Protocol (1989): an agreement
among nations requiring the phase-out of
chemicals that damage the ozone layer
• Clean Air Act (1990): Amended again because
time limits were too short for auto industry.
Addresses 5 main areas: air quality standards,
motor vehicle emissions and alternative fuels,
toxic air pollutants, acid rain and ozone
depletion.
Relevant Laws and Protocols
• Pollution Prevention Act (1990): Requires
industries to reduce pollution at its source.
Reduction can be in terms of volume and/or
toxicity.
• Kyoto Protocol (1997 and 2001): An
agreement among 150 nations requiring
greenhouse gas reductions
Noise Pollution
• Unwanted human-created noise that disrupts the
environment.
• Effects: hearing loss, cardiovascular problems,
decrease in alertness, gastrointestinal problems,
insomnia, nervousness, high blood pressure,
anxiety, depression, etc.
• Control Measures: noise barriers, limitation of
time of work day,
• Noise Control Act (1972): Establishes a national
policy to promote less noise. Coordination of
federal research and activities in noise control.
Sources of Water Pollution
• Air Pollution: Pollutants like mercury, SO2, NOx,
and ammonia fall out of the sky and into the
water.
• They can cause Mercury contamination in fish
and acidification and eutrophication of lakes
• The oceans have absorbed enough CO2 to have
increases ocean acidification
• This is causing carbonate structures (corals, algae
and marine plankton) to dissolve.
• These organisms are the base of the food
pyramid in the ocean.
Sources of Water Pollution
• Chemicals: Metals, solvents and oils, detergents and pesticides.
• These can accumulate in fish and shellfish, poison people, animals and
birds.
• On a square-foot basis, homeowners apply more chemicals to their lawn
than farmers
• Each year, road runoff and other non-spill sources impart an amount of oil
to the oceans that is most than 5X greater than the Valdez oil spill
• Discharge of oily wastes and oil-containing water are significant sources of
marine pollution
• Drilling and extraction operation for oil and gas can contaminate coastal
waters and groundwater
• The EPA estimates that 100,000 gasoline storage tanks leak chemicals into
groundwater.
• Studies have shown that 90% of drug prescriptions pass through the
human body unaltered and eventually end up in the water.
Sources of Water Pollution
• Chemicals: Animal farming operations that use growth hormones
and antibiotics also send large quantities of chemicals into the
water
• Most wastewater treatment facilities are not equipped to filter out
personal care produces, household produces or pharmaceuticals.
• Studies of the effects of these chemicals are affecting gender and
hormones in fish and frogs. Also disrupting fish population and
growth.
• In Santa Monica California, wells supplying ½ of the cities water
have been closed because of contamination of a gasoline additive
MTBE- Components of crude oil, called polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs) persist in the marine environment for years
are toxic to marine life.
• Chronic exposure to PAHs can affect development, increase disease
and jeopardize normal reproductive cycles in marine species.
Sources of Water Pollution
• Microbiological Sources: disease-causing (pathogenic)
microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses and protozoa can result in
swimmers getting sick and fish and shell fish becoming
contaminates
• Examples: Cholera, typhoid, shigells, polio, meningitis and hepatitis
• In developing countries 90% of waste water is discharges directly
into lakes and streams.
• In the US, 850 billion gallons of raw sewage are dumped into rivers,
lakes and bays by leaking sewage pipes or systems that overflow
when there are heavy rains
• about 25% of all beaches in the US annually have water pollution
advisories and close each year due to bacterial buildup caused by
sewage
Sources of Water Pollution
• Mining: The mining process exposes heavy metals and sulfur compounds that
were previously locked away in Earth.
• Rainwater leaches these compounds, resulting in acid mine drainage and heavy
metal pollution (can continue for a long time after mining stops)
• Rainwater on piles of mining wastes transfers pollution to freshwater supplies
• In gold mining, cyanide is poured directly onto mined rock to extract the gold
chemically. Some cyanide finds its way to nearby water.
• Huge pools of mining waste slurry are often stored behind dams that leak and
infiltrate groundwater supply
• In developing countries they dump the waste directly into water
• In 2003 the US reclassified mining wastes from mountain top removal so it
could be dumped directly into valleys and streams
• The Iron Mountain min in CA has been closed since 1963 but still drains sulfuric
acid and heavy metals into the Sacramento River and expected to continue
doing this for 3,000 years.
Sources of Water Pollution
• Noise: Many marine organisms, including
marine mammals, sea turtles and fish use
sound to communicate, navigate and hunt.
• Because of oceanic water noise pollution
caused by commercial shipping, military sonar
and recreational boating, some species have
ha harder time hunting, detecting predators
and may not be able to navigate properly.
Sources of Water Pollution
• Nutrients: Phosphorus and Nitrogen are necessary for plant
growth and are plentiful in untreated waste water
• When added to lakes and streams they cause growth of
aquatic weeds that block waterways as well as algal
blooms.
• If the source is from humans its called cultural
eutrophication.
• Deposition of atmospheric nitrogen (from NOx) also cause
nutrient-type water pollution
• Nutrient pollution is also a problem in estuaries and deltas
where the runoff was aggregated by watersheds is finally
dumped into the mouth of major rivers.
Sources of Water Pollution
• Oil Spills: Ships carrying oil can wreck and pipes can leak
• Oil penetrates feathers of seabirds, reducing the ability for the birds
to stay insulated, they also become less buoyant in the water.
• Organisms also ingest the oil
• Because oil sits on top of the water it doesn’t allow sunlight to get
through, limiting photosynthesis of plants and plankton effecting
the entire food chain
• Recovering oil depends on the type of oil, the temp of the water,
and the types of shorelines involved.
• Methods for cleaning up: microorganisms to break oil down,
chemicals, dispersants, sorbents, and detergents that act to
disperse the oil, absorb it or cause it to clump and sink. They burn it
and use booming, skimming and/or vacuuming equipment also
Sources of Water Pollution
• Oxygen-Depleting Substances: biodegradable
wastes are uses as nutrients by bacteria and
other microorganisms.
• Excessive biodegradable wastes can cause
oxygen depletion in receiving waters
• This can result in increases in anaerobic
bacteria that produce ammonia, amines,
sulfides and methane and decreases aerobic
organisms such as fish.
Sources of Water Pollution
• Suspended Matter: suspended wastes eventually settle out
of water and form silt or mud at the bottom.
• Toxic materials can also accumulate in the sediment and
affect organisms in the food web
• When forests are clear-cut, the root systems that previously
held the soil in place die an the sediment is free to run off
into nearby waterways
• Plastics and plastic-like substances (nylon from fishing nets)
can entangle fish, sea turtles and marine mammals causing
injury and death.
• Certain types of plastic can break down into micro particles
and become ingested my tiny marine organisms, they then
move up the food chain.
Sources of Water Pollution
• Thermal Pollution: produced by industry and
power plants
• Heat reduces the ability of water to hold
oxygen.
• Some organisms cannot tolerate heat and/or
low oxygen.
• Global warming is also imparting additional
heat into oceans, rivers, and streams with
unknown consequences.
Case Studies- Minamata Disease
• 27 tons of mercury-containing compounds
from industrial processes were dumped into
Minamata bay in Japan between 1932-1968.
• The mercury collected in fish and shellfish
caught in the bay
• Symptoms include: blurred vision, hearing
loss, loss of muscular coordination and
reproductive disorders.
Case Studies- Exxon Valdeze
• In 1989, the oil tanker Exxon Valdez spilled 1130 million gallons of crude oil into Prince
William Sound, Alaska
• As a result, 250,000 birds, 3,000 otters, 300
seals, 300 bald eagles and 22 whales along
with billions of salmon and herring eggs died.
• The oil also destroyed the majority of
plankton in the sound.
Case Study- Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill
• In April 2010, a massive oil spill followed an
explosion on the Deepwater Horizon offshore
drilling rig operated by BP
• This became the most significant environmental
disaster to occur in the US
• As the oil from the well site reached the Gulf
coast, billions of dollars in damage was done to
the Gulf of Mexico fishing industry, the tourism
industry and the habitat of hundreds of birds, fish
and other wildlife species.
Cultural Eutrophication
• The process whereby human activity increases the amount of nutrients
entering surface waters.
• The 2 most important nutrients that that cause this are Nitrates (NO3-)
and phosphates (PO4-3)
• Nitrates are water soluble and found in fertilizers that can remain on fields
and accumulate and then leech into waterways.
• Nitrates cause nitrate poisoning in water supplies, reduce the
effectiveness of hemoglobin and may be responsible for worldwide
decline in amphibians.
• Phosphates are also a component of inorganic fertilizers. Although they
are not water soluble they adhere to soil particles.
• Soil erosion contributes to the build up of phosphates in water supplies
• Phosphate levels in water are 75% higher than they were in preindustrial
times.
• Phosphate buildup is more damaging in freshwater systems. Nitrate build
up is more damaging in wetlands
Cultural Eutrophication
• Both are algal nutrients. If you increase the concentration
of these nutrients explosions of the amounts of algae
happen causing Algal Blooms
• Increases algae results in decreases light penetration, killing
off deeper plants and their supply of oxygen to water.
• Oxygen concentrations decrease in water due to the
consequences of increased material for decomposers to eat
• Lower oxygen concentrations cause fish and other aquatic
organisms to die and contaminate the water at a high rate
• Decaying fish and algae produce toxins in the water
• Controlling it: planting buffer zones (slows erosion),
controlling application and timing of fertilizer application,
controlling runoff from feedlots, using denitrifying bacteria.
Groundwater Pollution
• 50% of people in the US depend on groundwater. In some
countries its as high as 95%
• Almost ½ of the water used in agriculture comes from
groundwater
• The EPA estimates that each day 4.5 trillion liters of
contaminated water seep into groundwater systems.
• In the US 60% of the most hazardous liquid wastes, solvents,
heavy metals and radioactive materials are injected directly
into deep ground wells (these leak into the groundwater)
• Water entering an aquifer remains there for about 1,400 years
compared to the 16 days in a river system.
• Once groundwater in contaminated its practically impossible
to remove the contaminates.
Drinking Water Treatment Methods
Name
Definition
Adsorption
Contaminates stick to the surface of granular or powdered
activated charcoal
Disinfection
Chlorine, chloramines, chlorine dioxide, ozone and UV
radiation
Filtration
Removes clays, silts, natural organic matter and precipitants
from the treatment process. Filtration clarifies water and
enhances the effectiveness of disinfection
Flocculation-Sedimentation
Process that combines small particles into larger particles that
then settle out of the water as sediment. Alum, iron salts or
synthetic organic polymers are generally used to promote
coagulation
Ion Exchange
Removes inorganic wastes. It can be used to remove arsenic,
chromium, excess fluoride, nitrates, radium and uranium
Water treatment remediation
technology
Name
Explanation
Adsorption/absorption
Solutes concentrate at the surface of the sorbent (an absorbing
surface), thereby reducing their concentration
Aeration
Bubbling air through water increases rates of oxidation
Air Stripping
VOCs are separated from groundwater by exposing water to air (the
VOCs evaporate due to their high vapor pressure)
Bioreactors
Groundwater is acted upon by microorganisms
Constructed Wetlands
Uses natural geochemical and biological processes that parallel
natural wetlands. Also known as living machines
Deep-Well Injections
Uses injection wells to place treated or untreated liquid waste into
geological formations that do not pose a potential risk to groundwater
Enhanced
bioremediation
The natural rate of bioremediation is enhanced by adding oxygen and
nutrients into groundwater
Fluid-vapor extraction
A vacuum system is applied to low-permeable soil to remove liquids
and gases
Water treatment remediation
technology
Name
Description
Granulated Activated Groundwater is pumped through a series of
Carbon (GAC)
columns containing activated carbon
Hot water or steam
flush
In-well air stripping
Phytoremediation
UV Oxidation
Steam or hot water is forced into an aquifer to
vaporize volatile contaminants and is then
treated through fluid-vapor extraction
Air is injected into wells- the air picks up
various contaminants, particularly VOCs.
Vapors are drawn off by vapor extraction
Uses plants to remove contamination
Uses UV light, ozone or hydrogen peroxide to
destroy microbiological contaminants.
Septic Systems
• Consists of a tank and a drain field
• Wastewater enters the tank where solids settle
• Anaerobic digestion using bacteria treats the settled
solids and reduces their volume
• Excess liquid leaves the tank and moves through a pipe
with holes in it to a leach field where the water
percolates into the soil
• Some pollutants, especially nitrogen, don’t decompose
in a septic system and may contaminate groundwater
• About 25% of Americans rely on septic systems
Septic System
Waste Water Treatment- Primary
• Reduces oils, grease, fats, sand, grit and
course solids
• Specific steps include sand catchers, screens
and sedimentation.
• This is a physical method of cleaning
Waste Water Treatment- Secondary
• Designed to degrade substantially the
biological content of the sewage derived from
human waste, food waste, soaps and
detergents
• Specific steps include: filters, activated sludge,
oxidizing beds, trickling filter beds and
secondary sedimentation
• This is a biological method of cleaning
Sewage Treatment Process
Waste Water Treatment- Tertiary
• Final stage to raise the effluent quality to the
standard required before its discharged
• Steps include: sand filtration, lagooning,
constructed wetlands, nutrient removal
through biological or chemical precipitation,
denitrification using bacteria, removal of
phosphorus using bacteria, microfiltration and
disinfection using UV light, chlorine or ozone.
Waste Water Treatment Process
Relevant Laws
Law
Description
Federal Water Pollution
Control Act (1948)
Created comprehensive programs for eliminating or reducing the
pollution of interstate water and improving the sanitary condition of
surface and groundwater
Water Quality Act (1965) Established water purity standards with states retaining initial
responsibility for water purity
Clean Water Act (1972)
Established the basic structure for regulating discharges of pollutants
into the waters of the US. It gave the EPA authority to implement
pollution control programs such as setting standards for industry.
Also continued requirements to set water quality standards for all
contaminants in surface water. Act made it unlawful to discharge any
pollutant into water unless a permit is obtained.
Safe Water Drinking Act
(1974)
Established standards for safe drinking water in the US
Ocean Dumping Ban
(1988)
Made it unlawful for anyone to dump or transport for the purpose of
dumping wastes into the ocean.
Relevant Laws
Law
Description
Oil Spill Prevention and Liability
Act (1990)
Strengthened the PRA’s ability to prevent and
respond to catastrophic oil spills
Source Water Assessment
Program SWAP (1996)
Required states to identify sources of public
drinking water supplies and assess susceptibility
to contamination
Source Water Protection Program
SWPP (1996)
Encouraged states to adopt a community based
approach to preventing water pollution
Surface Water Treatment Rule
SWTR (1996)
Addressed control of microbial pathogens
Convention on POPs (2001)
Countries committed to reduce and/or eliminate
the production, use or release of 12 persistent
organic pollutants (POP) of great concern (EX.
PCB’s) and to establish a mechanism by which
additional chemicals may be added to the Treaty
in the future.
Solid Wastes
Type
Description
Organic
Kitchen wastes, vegetables, flowers, leaves or fruits. Usually
decomposes within 2 weeks although wood can take 10-15 years to
decompose
Radioactive
Spent fuel rods and smoke detectors. Radioactive wastes can take
hundreds to thousands of years to decompose
Recyclable
Paper, glass, metals and some plastics. Paper decomposes in 10-30
days. Glass does not decompose. Metals decompose in 100-500 years.
Some plastics can take up to 1 million years to decompose
Soiled
Hospital Wastes. Cotton and cloth can take 2-5 months to decompose
Toxic
Paints, chemicals, pesticides and so on. Toxic wastes can take hundreds
of years to decompose.
Solid Wastes
Disposing of Solid Wastes
Pros and Cons
Burning, Incinerating or Energy
Recovery
Pros
Cons
Heat can be used to supplement energy
requirements
Air pollution including lead, mercury, NOx,
cadmium, SO2, HCl, and dioxins
Reduces impact on landfills
Sorting out batteries, plastics etc, is
expensive
Mass burning is inexpensive
No way of knowing toxic consequences
What is left is 10-20% of its original
volume
Ash is more concentrated with toxic
metals
US incinerates 15% of its waste
Initial costs on incinerators are high
France, Japan, Sweden and Switzerland
incinerate >40% of their waste and use
the heat to generate electricity
Adds to acid precipitation and global
warming.
Composting
Pros
Cons
Creates nutrient-rich
Public reaction to odor,
soil additive
vermin and insects
Aids in water retention Not in my backyard
(NIMBY)
Slows down soil
erosion
No major toxic issues
Remanufacturing
Pros
Recovers materials that
would have been
discarded
Beneficial to inner cities as
industry because material
is available and jobs are
needed
Cons
Toxic materials may be
present (CFCs, heavy
metals, toxic chemicals,
and so on)
Detoxifying
Pros
Reduces impact on
environment
Cons
Expensive
Exporting
Pros
Gets rid of problem
immediately
Source of income for
poor countries
Cons
Garbage imperialism or
environmental racism
Long-term effects
unknown
Expensive to transport
Land Disposal- Sanitary Landfills
Pros
Cons
Waste is covered each day with dirt to
help prevent insects and rodents
Rising land prices. Current cost 1 million
per hectare
Plastic liners, drainage systems and other
methods help control leaching material
into groundwater
Transportation costs to landfill
Geologic studies and environmental
impact studies are performed prior to
building
High Costs of running and monitoring
landfill
Collection of methane and use of fuel
cells to supplement energy demand
Legal liability
Use of anaerobic methane generators
reduces dependence on other energy
resources
Suitable areas are limited
NIMBY
Degradable plastics don’t decompose
completely.
Land Disposal- Open Dumping
Pros
Inexpensive
Provides a source of
income to the poor by
providing recyclable
products to sell
Cons
Trash blows away in the
wind
Vermin and disease
Leaching of toxic metals
into the soil
Aesthetics
Ocean Dumping
Pros
Inexpensive
Cons
Debris floats to
unintended areas
Marine organisms and
the food webs are
impacted
Illegal in United States
Recycling
Pros
Cons
Turns waste into an inexpensive resource
Poor regulation
Reduces impact on landfills
Fluctuations in market price
Reduces need for raw materials and the
costs associated with it
Throwaway packaging is more popular
Reduces energy requirements to produce
products. Recycling Aluminum cuts
energy use by 95%. Using Steel from scrap
reduces energy requirements by 75%
Current policies and regulations favor
extraction of raw materials. Energy, water,
and raw materials are sold below real
costs to stimulate new jobs and the
economy
Reduces dependence on foreign oil
Reduces air and water pollution
Bottle bills provide economic incentive to
recycle
Reuse
Pro
Con
Most efficient method of
reclaiming materials
Industry models already in
place- auto salvage yards,
building materials and so on
Refillable glass bottles can be
used 15 times
Cost of collecting materials on
a large scale is expensive
Cost of washing and
decontaminating containers is
expensive
Only when items are expensive
and labor is cheap is reuse
economical
Cloth diapers do not impact
landfills
Relevant Laws
Law
Description
Soild Waste Disposal Act
(1965)
First federal law the required environmentally sound methods
for disposal of household, municipal, commercial and industrial
waste
Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act (1976)
Encouraged states to develop comprehensive plans to manage
nonhazardous industrial solid and municipal wastes. Set criteria
for municipal landfills and disposal facilities and prohibited
open dumping of solid waste.
Toxic Substance Control Act
(TOSCA) (1976)
Gave the EPA the authority to track industrial chemicals
produces within or imported into the US. Allows the EPA to ban
the manufacture or importation of chemicals that pose a risk
Nuclear Waste Policy Act
(1982)
Established federal authority to provide locations for
permanent disposal of high level radioactive wastes and
required the operators of nuclear power plants to pay the costs
of permanent disposal
Relevant Laws
Law
Description
Comprehensive Environmental
Response, Compensations and
Liability Act- SUPERFUND
(1980)
Provided authority for the federal government to respond to
releases or possible releases of hazardous substances that
could threaten public health and/or the environment.
Established rules for closed and abandoned hazardous waste
sites. Established liability for corporations responsible for
hazardous waste sites. Created a trust fund for cleanup if
responsible party cant be found.
Marine Plastic Pollution
Research and Control Act
(1987)
Discharge of plastics into water is prohibited. Food waste,
paper, rage, glass and metal cant be discharged into navigable
water or within 12 miles of land
Medical Waste Tracking Act
(1988)
Required tracking systems, stringent management standards,
packaging and labeling of medical supplies
Waste Reduction Act (1990)
Requires EPA to develop and coordinate pollution prevention
strategy and develop source reduction models. Requires
owners and operators of manufacturing to report annually on
source reduction and recycling.