Bank Management, 5th edition.
Timothy W. Koch and S. Scott MacDonald
Copyright © 2003 by South-Western, a division of Thomson Learning
流动性风险管理
Chapter 11
The relationship between cash and
liquidity requirements
 The amount of cash held is heavily
influenced by the bank’s liquidity
requirements.
 Vault cash is held to meet reserve
requirements and transactions purposes
 需要注意的是流动性与盈利能力之间存在冲突。
The link between liquidity and banking
risks and returns
 Liquidity needs arise from net deposit outflows,
as balances held with Federal Reserve Banks
or correspondent banks decline.
 Most withdrawals are predictable because they
are either contractually based or follow welldefined patterns.
 Still, some outflows are totally unexpected.
A common definition of liquidity
emphasizes the ease of converting an
asset to cash with minimum loss.
 For a financial institution that regularly
borrows in the financial markets, liquidity
takes on the added dimension of the ability to
borrow funds at minimum cost or even the
ability to issue stock.
 It explicitly recognizes that such firms can
access cash by selling assets, by new
borrowing, and by new stock issues.
 Bank liquidity thus refers to a bank’s capacity
to acquire immediately available funds at a
reasonable price.
Cash versus liquid assets
 Banks own four types of cash assets:
1. vault cash,
2. demand deposit balances at Federal Reserve
Banks,
3. demand deposit balances at private financial
institutions, and
4. cash items in the process of collection (CIPC).
 Cash assets do not earn any interest, and
represents a substantial opportunity cost for
banks.
 Banks attempt to minimize the amount of
cash assets held and hold only those
required by law or for operational needs.
Why do banks hold cash assets?
1. Banks supply coin and currency to meet
customers' regular transactions needs.
2. Regulatory agencies mandate legal reserve
requirements that can only be met by holding
qualifying cash assets.
3. Banks serve as a clearinghouse for the
nation's check payment system.
4. Banks use cash balances to purchase
services from correspondent banks.
Liquid assets
 A liquid asset is one that can be easily and
quickly converted into cash with minimum
loss.
 Contrary to popular notion "cash assets" do
not generally satisfy a bank's liquidity needs.

If, for example, the bank experiences an
unexpected drain on(消耗) vault cash, the bank
must immediately replace the cash or it would
have less vault cash than required for legal or
operational needs.
现金资产与流动资产的关系
 只有当现金资产超过了法定或最低水平后，现金资
产才能成为流动资产，才能用于流动负债的清偿；
 银行的流动性实际上指的是一种快捷低成本获得现
金的能力。银行流动性来源有三个方面：变卖资产，
借新债，发行新股。
Cash assets are liquid assets only to
the extent that a bank holds more
than the minimum required.
 Liquid assets are generally considered to be:
1. cash and due from banks in excess of
requirements,
2. federal funds sold and reverse repurchase
agreements,
3. short-term Treasury and agency obligations,
4. high quality short-term corporate and
municipal securities, and
5. some government-guaranteed loans that can
be readily sold.
Reserve balances at the Federal
Reserve Bank
 Banks hold deposits at the Federal Reserve in
part because the Federal Reserve imposes
legal reserve requirements and deposit
balances qualify as legal reserves.
 Banks also hold deposits to help process
deposit inflows and outflows caused by check
clearings, maturing time deposits and
securities, wire transfers, and other
transactions.

Deposit flows are the link between a
bank’s cash position and its liquidity
requirements.
Required reserves and monetary policy
 The purpose of required reserves is to enable
the Federal Reserve to control the nation’s
money supply.
 There are basically three distinct monetary
policy tools:
1.
2.
3.
open market operations,
changes in the discount rate, and
changes in the required reserve ratio.
Required reserves
 Legal reserves = vault cash and deposits at the
Federal Reserve Bank.
 What determines required reserves?

RR = rdd x DD + rtd x TD

actually today, rtd = 0
 Why are required reserves so important?
 Recall that money (M1) is:
M1 = Cashnon bank public + DD and
DD = Reserves / rdd
--> the money multiplier.
Sweep accounts
 Under the Federal Reserve’s Regulation D, checkable
deposit accounts such as demand deposits, ATS, NOW,
and other checkable deposit (OCD) accounts have a
10% reserve requirement, but money market deposit
accounts (MMDAs) are considered personal saving
deposits and have a zero required reserve requirement
ratio（只要能够认定为个人的，就可以免交法定存款准备
金。）.
 Sweep accounts are accounts that enable depository
institutions to shift funds from OCDs, which are
reservable, to MMDAs or other accounts, which are not
reservable.（免交）
Meeting legal reserve requirements
 Required reserves can be met over a two-
week period.
 Reserves must be held to a fraction of its
base liabilities.
 There are three elements of required reserves:
1.
2.
3.
the dollar magnitude of base liabilities,
the required reserve fraction, and
the dollar magnitude of qualifying cash assets.
Reserve requirement percentages for
depository institutions
Type of Deposit
Net transactions Accounts
Exempt amt.
$ 5.70 mill
Up to
$ 41.30 mill
Over
$ 41.30 mill
All other liabilities
Effective Date
of Applicable
Percentage Percentages
0.00%
3.00%
10.00%
0.00%
7/1/2000
7/1/2000
7/1/2000
7/1/2000
法定存款准备金是一个经常变动的宏观调控变量。
Lagged reserve accounting
 Under the current lagged reserve accounting (LRA)
procedure:


banks must maintain reserves on a daily average basisfor a 14-day period (reserve maintenance period)
beginning on the third Thursday following the
computation period（每14天检查一次）.
The amount of required reserves is determined by the
magnitude of daily average reservable liabilities over a
base computation period that that begins about four and
one-half weeks before the maintenance period begins
（按照此前的4个半星期的平均应交法定存款准备金的负债计
算。）.
Satisfying reserve requirements
 Both vault cash and Fed deposit balances
qualify as reserves, but the timing varies.
 Daily average balances determine the amount
of vault cash that qualifies over the two-week
computation period that ends three days prior
to the maintenance period.
Lagged reserve accounting
Lagged
Computation
Period
Sun
Mon
Tue
Wed
Thu
Fri
Sat
July
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
Aug
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
Reserve Maintenance Period
Vault Cash
Computation
Period
Report of reservable liabilities and
offsetting asset balances
Lagged Computation Tue Wed
Period
10-Jul 11-Jul
DDA's
992
995
Auto trans from sav.
0
0
NOW and Super Now
221
221
Deductions:
DD bal from U.S. dep. 163
281
CIPC
96
96
Net Trans. accts
954
839
Vault Cash
28
30
Balances at Close of Business Day (millions of dollars)
Thu Fri Sat Sun Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat Sun Mon
12-Jul 13-Jul 14-Jul 15-Jul 16-Jul 17-Jul 18-Jul 19-Jul 20-Jul 21-Jul 22-Jul 23-Jul
956 954 954 954 989 996 960 959 958 958 958 990
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
222 223 223 223 223 224 225 225 225 225 225 225
190
78
910
186
78
913
186
78
913
186
78
913
159
95
958
159
98
963
274
92
819
178
79
927
182
81
920
182
81
920
182
81
920
164
88
963
31
33
33
33
38
30
31
32
32
32
32
36
Report of reservable liabilities and
offsetting asset balances (continued)
Lagged Computation
Period
DDA's
Auto trans from sav.
NOW and Super Now
Deductions:
DD bal from U.S. dep.
CIPC
Net Trans. accounts
TwoWeek
$ 13,573
$
$ 3,130
$
$ 2,672
$ 1,199
$ 12,832
Daily
Average
$ 969.50
$
$ 223.57
$
$ 190.86
$ 85.64
$ 916.57
Vault Cash
$
$
451
32.21
Managing float
…during any single day, more than $100 million
in checks drawn on U.S. commercial banks is
waiting to be processed.
 Individuals, businesses, and governments
deposit the checks but cannot use the
proceeds until banks give their approval,
typically in several days.
 Checks in process of collection, called float,
are a source of both income and expense to
banks.（主要看收付是否属于同一家银行，或收支
结果）
The payment system
 Payments between banks can be made
either by check or electronically.


Checks drawn against transactions accounts
are presented to the customer’s bank for
payment and ultimately “cleared” by reducing
the bank’s deposit balance at the Federal
Reserve or a correspondent bank.
Payments made electronically directly and
immediately alter balances held at Federal
Reserve Banks.
Example of the check-clearing process
Correspondent banking services
 Correspondent banking is the system of
interbank relationships in which one bank sells
services to other financial institutions.
 The most common services are:








Check collection, wire transfer and coin supply,
Loan participation assistance,
Data processing services,
Portfolio analysis and investment advice,
Federal funds trading,
Securities safekeeping,
Arrangement of purchase or sale of securities,
Investment banking services.
The development of liquidity strategies
 Historically, liquidity management focused
on assets and was closely tied to lending
policies.
 Under the commercial loan theory prior to
1930, banks were encouraged to make only
short-term, self-liquidating loans.
The development of liquidity strategies
…Shiftability theory represented the next
extension by recognizing that any liquid asset
could be used to meet deposit withdrawals.
 In particular, a bank could satisfy its liquidity
requirements if it held loans and securities
that could be sold in the secondary market
prior to maturing.
The development of liquidity strategies
…Anticipated income theory, which suggested that
liquidity requirements and thus loan payments
should be tied to a borrower’s expected income.
 Around 1950 the focus shifted to the
anticipated income theory
 Banks were still encouraged to invest in
marketable instruments but now structured
loans so that the timing of principal and
interest payments matched the borrower’s
ability to repay from income.（银行现金收支的
时间匹配）
The development of liquidity strategies
…Liability management theory, banks can satisfy
liquidity needs by borrowing in the money and
capital markets.（依赖金融市场借贷非常重要）
 More recently, banks have focused on
liabilities.
 When they need immediately available
funds, they can simply borrow via federal
funds purchased, RPs, jumbo CDs,
commercial paper, and Eurodollars.
The development of liquidity strategies
(continued)
 Today, banks use both assets and liabilities
to meet liquidity needs.
 Available liquidity sources are identified and
compared to expected needs by a bank’s
asset and liability management committee
(ALCO，资产负债管理).
Liquidity versus profitability
 There is a short-run trade-off between
liquidity and profitability.

The more liquid a bank is, the lower its return
on equity and return on assets, all other things
being equal.
 Both asset and liability liquidity contribute to
this relationship.


Asset liquidity is influenced by the
composition and maturity of funds.
In terms of liability liquidity, banks with the
best asset quality and highest equity capital
have greater access to purchased funds.

They also pay lower interest rates and generally
report lower returns in the short run.
Liquidity risk, credit risk, and interest
rate risk
 Liquidity management is a day-to-day
responsibility.
 Liquidity risk, for a poorly managed bank,
closely follows credit and interest rate risk.

Banks that experience large deposit outflows
can often trace the source to either credit
problems or earnings declines from interest rate
gambles that backfired.
 Few banks can replace lost deposits
independently if an outright run on the bank
occurs.
 流动性风险实际上是银行破产事件的直接导火索。
Factors affecting certain liquidity needs:
 New Loan Demand




Unused commercial credit lines outstanding
Consumer credit available on bank-issued cards
Business activity and growth in the bank’s trade area
The aggressiveness of the bank’s loan officer call
programs（所以一个银行的盲目快速扩张易发生流动性问题）
 Potential deposit losses(流失)






The composition of liabilities（尤其是短期负债和核心存款）
Insured versus uninsured deposits
Deposit ownership between: money fund traders, trust
fund traders, public institutions, commercial banks,
corporations, individuals,etc
Large deposits held by any single entity
Seasonal or cyclical patterns in deposits
The sensitivity of deposits to changes in the level of
interest rates
Traditional measures of liquidity asset
liquidity measures
 Asset liquidity
…the ease of converting an asset to cash
with a minimum loss.
 The most liquid assets mature near term and
are highly marketable.
 Liquidity measures are normally expressed
in percentage terms as a fraction of total
assets.
Highly liquid assets include:
 Cash and due from banks in excess of
required holdings and due from banks-interest
bearing, typically with short maturities
 Federal funds sold and reverse RPs.
 U.S. Treasury securities maturing within 1 year
 U.S. agency obligations maturing within 1 year
 Corporate obligations maturing within 1 year
and rated Baa and above
 Municipal securities maturing within one year
and rated Baa and above
 Loans that can be readily sold and/or
securitized
 要么容易转让，要么期限很短
Pledging requirements（担保要求）
 Not all of a bank’s securities can be easily
sold.
 Like their credit customers, banks are
required to pledge collateral against certain
types of borrowings.
 U.S. Treasuries or municipals normally
constitute the least-cost collateral and, if
pledged against debt, cannot be sold until
the bank removes the claim or substitutes
other collateral.
 当接受担保时，最好是流动性强的担保品。
Loans
 Many banks and bank analysts monitor
loan-to-deposit ratios as a general measure
of liquidity.
 Loans are presumably the least liquid of
assets, while deposits are the primary
sources of funds.
 A high ratio indicates illiquidity because a
bank is fully extended relative to its stable
funding.
The loan-to-deposit ratio is not as meaningful a
measure of liquidity as it first appears.
 Two banks with identical deposits and loan-
to-deposit ratios may have substantially
different liquidity if one bank has highly
marketable loans while the other has risky,
long-term loans.
 An aggregate loan figure similarly ignores the
timing of cash flows from interest and
principal payments.
 The same is true for a bank’s deposit base.
 Some deposits, such as long-term
nonnegotiable time deposits, are more stable
than others, so there is less risk of
withdrawal.
Aggregate ratios thus ignore the difference
in composition of both assets and liabilities,
along with their cash-flow characteristics.
 In summary, the best measures of asset
liquidity identifies the dollar amounts of
unpledged liquid assets as a fraction of total
assets.
 The greater the fraction, the greater the ability
to sell assets to meet cash needs.
 所以如果想要采用资产负债比例管理，必须对存
贷款的未来现金流进行优化，否则无法采用这个
比率进行流动性管理。
Liability liquidity measures
 Liability liquidity
…the ease with which a bank can issue new
debt to acquire clearing balances at
reasonable costs.
 Measures typically reflect a bank’s asset
quality, capital base, and composition of
outstanding deposits and other liabilities.
 负债流动性与资产流动性完全不同，这点要特别
注意。
Liability liquidity measures
 The following ratios are commonly cited:
 Total equity to total assets
 Risk assets to total assets
 Loan losses to net loans
 Reserve for loan losses to net loans
 The percentage composition of deposits
 Total deposits to total liabilities
 Core deposits to total assets
 Federal funds purchased and RPs to total
liabilities
 Commercial paper and other short-term
borrowings to total liabilities.
Measuring core deposits
Deposit Amount
(Millions of Dollars)
Total Deposits
Core Deposits
Volatile Deposits = Total Deposits = Core Deposits
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
Time
A bank’s ability to borrow at reasonable
rates of interest is closely linked to the
market’s perception of asset quality.
 Banks with high quality assets and a large
capital base can issue more debt at relatively
low rates.
 Banks with stable deposits generally have the
same widespread access to borrowed funds at
relatively low rates（这是一个重要结论）.
 Those that rely heavily on purchased funds, in
contrast, must pay higher rates and experience
greater volatility in the composition and
average cost of liabilities.
 For this reason, most banks today compete
aggressively for retail core deposits.
Liquidity planning（）
 Banks actively engage in liquidity planning
at two levels. （计算流动性需求）


The first relates to managing the required
reserve position.
The second stage involves forecasting net
funds needs derived, seasonal or cyclical
phenomena and overall bank growth.
Liquidity planning:
Monthly intervals
 The second stage of liquidity planning
involves projecting funds needs over the
coming year and beyond, if necessary.
 Projections are separated into three
categories:
1.
2.
3.
base trend（正常情况下）,
short-term seasonal（季节性情况）, and
cyclical values（周期性情况，主要指在经济周期
的不同阶段）.
 Management can supplement this analysis by
including projected changes in purchased
funds and in investments with specific loan
and deposit flows.
Forecasts of trend, seasonal, and cyclical
components of deposits and loans
Loan forecast
End of
Month
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Trend
Loans*
Seasonal
Loan
lndext
Seasonal
LoanDec. Loans
Cyclical
Loans
$1,413
1,427
1,440
1,454
1,467
1,481
1,495
1,510
1,524
1,538
1,553
1,568
101%
97
95
94
97
102
108
106
103
99
98
100
$14
-42
-70
-84
-42
28
112
84
42
-14
-28
0
$6
-9
-18
-21
-15
-3
9
17
11
5
0
0
Total
$1,433
1,376
1,352
1,349
1,410
1,506
1,616
1,611
1,577
1,529
1,525
1,568
Monthly liquidity needs（通常月是安排流
动性的常见时间间隔）
 The bank’s monthly liquidity needs are
estimated as the forecasted change in loans
plus required reserves minus the forecast
change in deposits:

Liquidity needs =
Forecasted Dloans + Drequired reserves
- forecasted Ddeposits
Estimates of liquidity needs
End of
Month
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
DDeposit
s
DRequired
Reserves
DLoans
Liquidity
Needs*
11.0
56.0
110.0
153.0
56.0
-25.0
-72.0
-26.0
19.0
96.0
155.0
96.0
1.1
5.6
11.0
15.3
5.6
-2.5
-7.2
-2.6
1.9
9.6
15.5
9.6
$ 33.0
-24.0
-48.0
-51.0
10.0
106.0
216.0
211.0
177.0
129.0
125.0
168.0
$42.9
-74.4
-147.0
-188.7
-40.4
128.5
280.8
234.4
159.9
42.6
-14.5
81.6
Liquidity GAP measures
 Management can supplement this
information with projected changes in
purchased funds and investments with
specific loan and deposit flows.
 The bank can calculate a liquidity GAP by
classifying potential uses and sources of
funds into separate time frames according to
their cash flow characteristics.
 The Liquidity GAP for each time interval
equals the dollar value of uses of funds
minus the dollar value of sources of funds.
Liquidity gap estimates (millions of dollars)
0–30 Days
Potential Uses of Funds
Add: Maturing time deposits
Small time deposits
5.5
Certificates of deposit over $100,000
40.0
Eurodollar deposits
10.0
Plus: Forecast new loans
Commercial loans
60.0
Consumer loans
22.0
Real estate and other loans
31.0
Minus: Forecast net change in transactional accounts
Demand deposits
- 6.5
NOW accounts
0.4
Money market deposit accounts
1.6
Total uses
$173.0
Potential Sources of Funds
Add: Maturing investments
Money market instruments
8.0
U.S. Treasury and agency securities
7.5
Municipal securities
2.5
Plus: Principal payments on loans
80.0
Total sources
98.0
Periodic Liquidity GAP
75.0
75.0
Cumulative Liquidity GAP
31–90 Days
91–365 Days
8.0
70.0
10.0
34.0
100.0
30.0
112.0
46.0
23.0
686.0
210.0
223.0
105.5
5.5
3.0
155.0
10.0
7.0
6.0
1,260.0
16.5
10.5
1.0
262.0
290.0
-135.0
- 60.0
36.5
40.0
12.5
903.0
992.0
268.0
208.0
Potential funding sources (millions of dollars)
Time Frame
Purchased Funds Capacity
Federal funds purchased (overnight and term)
Repurchase agreements
Negotiable certificates of deposit
Local
National
Eurodollar certificates of deposit
Total
Additional Funding Sources
Reductions in federal funds sold
Loan participations
Sale of money market securities
Sale of unpledged securities
Total
Potential Funding Sourcesa
Potential Extraordinary Funding Needs
50% of outstanding letters of credit
20% of unfunded loan commitments
Total
Excess Potential Funding Sources
0–30
Days
31–90
Days
91–365
Days
$20
10
$20
10
$30
10
50
20
20
$120
50
20
20
$120
60
25
20
$145
$5
20
5
10
$40
$160
$5
20
5
10
$40
$160
$5
20
5
10
$40
$185
5
25
$30
$130
10
30
$40
$120
15
35
$50
$135
Considerations in selecting liquidity sources
 The previous analysis focuses on
estimating the dollar magnitude of liquidity
needs.
 Implicit in the discussion is the
assumption that the bank has adequate
liquidity sources.
 Banks with options in meeting liquidity
needs evaluate the characteristics of
various sources to minimize costs.
 总是选择代价最低的流动性来源。
The following factors should be
considered when evaluating
Asset sales:
 Brokerage fees（这个交易成本可能很高）
 Securities gains or losses
 Foregone interest income
 Any increase or decrease in taxes
 Any increase or decrease in interest
receipts
The following factors should be
considered when evaluating
New borrowings:






Brokerage fees
Required reserves
FDIC insurance premiums
Servicing or promotion costs（偿债成本）
Interest expense.
The costs should be evaluated in present
value terms because interest income and
expense may arise over time.
 The choice of one source over another often
involves an implicit interest rate forecast.
中国工商银行流动性管理目标




建立科学完善的流动性风险管理机制
对流动性风险实施流程化管理
及时满足全行业务发展对流动性的需求
平衡资金的安全与效益。
中国工商银行流动性管理措施
 对流动性实施集中管理，将资金集中到一级分行进
行全额集中配置管理
 通过内部资金转移定价机制引导分行调整资产负债
期限、品种结构。
中国工商银行流动性管理的其他措施
 应用一系列流动性参数每日监控本行流动性头寸，
并按季向资产负债管理委员会汇报；
 通过持续监控及调整本行的现金、存放央行和其他
银行的现金以及其他生息资产的金额和结构，确保
满足本行未来的流动性需求；
 监控流动性比率以符合法规及内部要求，并采用压
力测试以评估本行的流动性需求；
 建立流动性风险预警系统和流动性应急计划。
中国工商银行2008年流动性缺口分析
（简要）
中国工商银行2008年流动性缺口分析
（详细）