МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ РФ
ФЕДЕРАЛЬНОЕ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННОЕ БЮДЖЕТНОЕ ОБРАЗОВАТЕЛЬНОЕ
УЧРЕЖДЕНИЕ ВЫСШЕГО ПРОФЕССИОНАЛЬНОГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ
СЕВЕРО-КАВКАЗСКИЙ ГОРНО-МЕТАЛЛУРГИЧЕСКИЙ ИНСТИТУТ
(ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ ТЕХНОЛОГИЧЕСКИЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ)
Кафедра иностранных языков
ЛАДОНИНА Н.А.
МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЕ УКАЗАНИЯ
ПО АНГЛИЙСКОМУ ЯЗЫКУ
для студентов технических специальностей
Допущено
редакционно-издательским советом
Северо-Кавказского горно-металлургического института
(государственного технологического университета)
Протокол заседания РИСа № 3 от 11.04.2014
Владикавказ
2014
УДК 811.111
ББК 81.2 Англ
Л-15
Ладонина Н.А.
Методические указания по английскому языку для студентов технических
специальностей. – Владикавказ: ООО НПКП «МАВР», 2014. – 24 с.
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CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT
It is well known in computer science that the words 'computer' and 'processor'
are used interchangeably. Speaking more precisely, 'computer' refers to the central
processing unit (CPU) together with an internal memory. The internal memory, control and processing components make up the heart of the computer system.
Manufactures design the CPU to control and carry out basic instructions for their
particular computer.
The CPU coordinates all the activities of the various components of the
computer. It determines which operations should be carried out and in what order. The
CPU controls the operation of the entire system by issuing commands to other parts of
the system and by acting on responses. When required it reads information from the
memory, interprets instructions, performs operations on the data according to the
instructions, writes the results back into the memory and moves information between
memory levels or through the input-output ports.
In digital computers the CPU can be divided into two functional units called the
control unit (CU) and the arithmetic-logical unit (ALU). These two units are made up
of electronic circuits with millions of switches that can be in one of two states, either
on or off.
The function of the CU within the central processor is to transmit coordinating
control signals and commands. The control unit is that part of the computer that directs
the sequence of step-by-step operations of the system, selects instructions and data
from memory, interprets the program instructions, and controls the flow between main
storage and the arithmetic-logical unit.
The ALU, on the other hand, is that part of the computer in which the actual
arithmetic operations, namely, addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and
exponentiation, called for in the instructions are performed.
Programs and the data on which the CU and the ALU operate, must be in
internal memory in order to be processed. Thus, if located in secondary memory
devices, such as disks or tapes, programs and data are first loaded into internal
memory.
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TOMATO PLANT
The farming company in California has built a plant capable of processing 90
tons of tomatoes per hour into aseptically-packaged paste.
It includes:
1. Two systems for deactivating enzymes and a vacuum system to prevent
oxidation;
2. Four centrifugal -paddle finishing systems which remove skins and seeds;
3. An evaporation system;
4. An aseptic processing system which sterilizes paste at a higher temperature
and shorter time than typical aseptic processes;
5. Three aseptic-bag packaging systems.
Tomatoes are pumped whole into the system and sliced under vacuum to prevent
oxidation. In a vacuum tank oxygen in the juice is removed as the particulates are
heated to denature enzymes. Sliced tomatoes are heated "instantly in milliseconds" to
200- 2I0°F, quickly denaturing the enzymes. High product temperature and greater
mass are achieved by recirculating some of the heated juice from the system's heat
exchanger back into a surge tank. This design provides faster and more even heating of
incoming product.
Juice from the breaking system fоllows via variable speed pump at 2I0°F to the
four finishing units, each consisting of two stainless steel chambers. The chambers
house a central shaft mounting radial and variable-speed paddles which sweep the juice
against circumferential screens. The finishing units customize the particulate to desired
size, which can be varied by changing screen size.
Finished juice moves at the rate of 90 tons per hour to the evaporation system,
where temperature is raised to 118 - I80°F.
Finished paste is then pumped at the rate of 15 tons per hour to the sterilizing
system. A heat-exchanger heats the paste to 228°F, holds it at this temperature for 2, 25
min, to kill spoilage organisms, then cools the paste with well water to I00°F. This
high temperature/short time treatment, as compared to typical systems which sterilize
paste at 205-206°F for 3 min., further assures superior product colour and flavor.
Sterilized paste then moves to the aseptic packaging lines.
Total packaging capacity: 15 tons per hour. Product shelf-life: 12 to 18 months.
NOTES:
enzyme – [´enzaım] – фермент
aseptical package – стерильная упаковка
particulate – частица, крупица
slaced – разрезанный
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THE CONTROL SYSTEM OF SMALL-SIZE COMPRESSORS
The compressors contain a control system. This is an almost "intelligent" control
system.
It automatically keeps power consumption at the lowest possible level for overall
system air demand» The Quad II's microprocessor is capable of addressing 64K bytes
of memory. A 40-character alphanumeric display monitors the system, and a labeled
keypad allows the operator to interact with the unit without referring to an instruction
manual.
A corresponding CRT terminal is connected to the QUAD II panel and can be
located up to 100 feet from the compressor. This allows observation of all operating
variables as well as all messages signaling compressor problems. Also available is a
small printer which allows the data to be logged and a hard copy retained.
The computerized control of the “TA” Series of compressors makes them
suitable for food processing plaints controlling production equipment with a central
computer.
The new series is comprised of the TA-18 Series, with output ranging from 1200
to 2400 cfm, depending on motor size and discharge pressure; the TA-28 Series, a
larger compressor with outputs of 2400 to 2800 cfm; and the TA-38 and ТА 48
models, which are now being readied for introduction.
All compressors in the "ТА" series are combined with a base in a single casting
that allows for easy installation, and normally requires no foundation. Integrated water
and oil passages reduce bulk, noise level and design complexity. Intercoolers slide out
and are readily removed for cleaning. Intercooler tubes have no bends, for less
complicated cleaning. The compressor is ready-to-run after making air, water and
power connections.
NOTES:
overall system air demand – вся система потребления
labeled keypad – маркировочный ключ
to log – записывать данные
integrated water and oil passages – объединенные водные и масляные трубопроводы
bulk – объем
intercooler tubes – промежуточные охладительные трубы
bends – изгибы
ready-to-run – готовый к действию
cfm – cubic feet per minute
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ELECTRIC POWER PLANTS
Electric power is generated at electric power plants. The main unit of an electric
power plant comprises a prime mover and the generator which it rotates.
In order to actuate the prime mover energy is required. Many different sources
of energy are in use nowadays. To these sources belongs heat obtained by burning
fuels, pressure due to the flow of air (wind), solar heat, etc.
According to the kind of energy used by the prime move: power plants are
divided into groups. Thermal, hydraulic (water-power) and wind plants form these
groups. According to the kind of prime mover, electric power plants are classed as:
a) Steam turbine plants, where steam turbines serve as prime movers. The main
generating units at steam turbine plants belong to the modern, high-capacity class of
power plants.
b) Steam engine plants, in which the prime mover is a piston-type steam engine.
Nowadays no large generating plants of industrial importance are constructed with
such prime movers. They are used only for local power supply.
c) Diesel-engine plants; in them diesel internal combustion engines are installed.
These plants are also of small capacity, they are employed for local power supply.
d) Hydroelectric power plants employ water turbines as prime movers. Therefore
they are called hydroturbine plants. Their main generating unit is the hydrogenerator.
Modern wind-electric power plants utilize various turbines: these plants as well
as the small capacity hydroelectric power plants are widely used in agriculture.
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THE MICROWAVE OVEN
The first microwave oven was very big and heavy. At first, it was used
exclusively in restaurants, railroad cars and ocean liners — places where large
quantities of food had to be cooked quickly. In fact, it took decades after the invention
of the microwave oven for it to be refined to a point where it would be useful to the
average consumer.
A large increase in the use of microwave ovens has created a greater need for
effective product design for microwave heating which ensures microbiological safety
while maintaining product quality.
During conventional heating methods, the primary mechanism of heat transfer is
either conduction or convection, depending of the nature of the food. In the microwave
foods heat from the generation of heat within the food itself, not from the conduction
of heat energy from hot air to the outer layer of the cooler product.
Microwaves penetrate the food and transfer their energy to dipolar or ionic
molecules, which are present in all foods. The greater the concentration of dipolar
molecules within particular areas in a food product, the faster that area of the product
will heat. Some of this heat energy is transferred to cooler areas by conduction or
convention, so helping the heating of other cooler areas, i.e. those areas which are less
receptive to microwave heating.
The penetration depth of microwave energy depends on how rapidly the
microwave energy is absorbed by the food product. If most of the energy is transferred
to molecules at the surface of the product, the penetration will be shallow, with the
bulk of the food heating mainly by convection or conduction.
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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Materials Science and Technology is the study of materials and how they can be
fabricated to meet the needs of modern technology. Using the laboratory techniques
and knowledge of physics, chemistry, and metallurgy, scientists are finding new ways
of using metals, plastics and other materials.
Engineers must know how materials respond to external forces, such as tension,
compression, torsion, bending, and shear. All materials respond to these forces by
elastic deformation. The materials may also have permanent deformation or they may
fracture. The results of external forces are creep and fatigue.
Compression is a pressure causing a decrease in volume. When a material is
subjected to a bending, shearing, or torsion (twisting) force, both tensile and
compressive forces are simultaneously at work. When a metal bar is bent, one side of it
is stretched and subjected to a tensional force, and the other side is compressed.
Tension is a pulling force; for example, the force in a cable holding a weight.
Under tension, a material usually stretches, returning to its original length if the force
does not exceed the material's elastic limit. Under larger tensions, the material does not
return completely to its original condition, and under greater forces the material
ruptures.
Fatigue is the growth of cracks under stress. It occurs when a mechanical part is
subjected to a repeated or cyclic stress, such as vibration. Even when the maximum stress
never exceeds the elastic limit, failure of the material can occur even after a short time. No
deformation is seen during fatigue, but small-localised cracks develop and propagate
through the material until the remaining cross-sectional area cannot support the maximum
stress of the cyclic force. Knowledge of tensile stress, elastic limits, and the resistance of
materials to creep and fatigue are of basic importance in engineering.
Creep is a slow, permanent deformation that results from steady force acting on
a material. Materials at high temperatures usually suffer from this deformation. The
gradual loosening of bolts and the deformation of components of machines and engines
are all the examples of creep. In many cases the slow deformation stops because
deformation eliminates the force causing the creep. Creep extended over a long time
finally leads to the rupture of the material.
bar – брусок, прут
compression – сжатие
creep – ползучесть
cross-sectional area – площадь поперечного сечения
fatigue – усталость металла
shear – срез
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fracture – перелом, излом
tention – напряженность
tortion – кручение
twisting – закручивание, изгиб
rupture – разрыв
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WHAT A DIESEL ENGINE IS
A diesel engine is a machine which produces power by burning oil in a body of
air which has been squeezed to a high pressure by a moving piston. Since it is a
machine that produces power, it is called an engine, and since the burning or
combustion takes place within the engine itself, it is called an internal-combustion
engine. A steam engine uses steam made by burning fuel outside the engine. That is
external combustion.
Basic Parts – To compress the air, put in the oil, and produce power, every diesel
engine must have certain basic parts. It must have a round sleeve, or cylinder, in the
bore of which a close-fitting plug or piston can slide in and out to make strokes. The
piston must be connected to a mechanism which controls its sliding. For this purpose
ordinary engines use crank mechanism. This consists of, first, a round bar or shaft
which can turn or revolve in circular guides called bearings and which has an offset or
crank (which turns in a circle when the shaft revolves), and, second, a connecting rod
which, as the name implies, connects the crank to the piston. The connecting rod is a
straight rod with a bearing at each end. The crank mechanism (which is also used in
many other kinds of machinery) is a device for converting the in-and-out motion of the
piston to rotating motion of the crankshaft. The power produced by the engine is taken
off the crankshaft.
Other basic parts are necessary. Valves or ports are needed to let the air into the
cylinder, and also to let out the burned or spent gases after they have done their work.
Also a spray nozzle, or fuel injector, is needed to deliver the oil for burning in the form
of a finely divided spray. To do this the oil must be put under pressure. This is
accomplished by a pump which is called a fuel-injection pump.
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NOTES:
sleeve – муфта, гильза
piston – поршень, клапан
crank – кривошип, (поворачивающий коленчатый вал двигателя)
shaft – вал
bearing – подшипник
rod – стержень
valve – золотник, клапан
spray nozzle – форсунка
by burning oil in a body of air – сжиганием жидкого топлива в определенном объеме воздуха.—
подразумевается воздух в цилиндре двигателя
*
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WHAT IS A COMPUTER?
The term computer is used to describe a device made up of a combination of
electronic and electromechanical (part electronic and part mechanical) components.
Computer has no intelligence by itself and is referred to as hardware. A computer
system is a combination of five elements:
• Hardware
• Software
• People
• Procedures
• Data/information
When one computer system is set up to communicate with another computer
system, connectivity becomes the sixth system element. In other words, the manner in
which the various individual systems are connected — for example, by phone lines,
microwave transmission, or satellite — is an element of the total computer system.
Software is the term used to describe the instructions that tell the hardware how
to perform a task. Without software instructions, the hardware doesn't know what to
do. People, however, are the most important component of the computer system: they
create the computer software instructions and respond to the procedures that those
instructions present.
The basic job of the computer is the processing of information. Computers
accept information in the form of instruction called a program and characters called
data to perform mathematical and logical operations, and then give the results. The
data is raw material while information is organized, processed, refined and useful for
deci-sion making. Computer is used to convert data into information. Computer is also
used to store information in the digital form.
characters – символы
hardware – оборудование
instruction – команда
intelligence – разум
to come to life – оживать
to refer to as – называть что-либо
to refine – очищать
manner – манера, способ
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Computers and Cybernetics
The computers or high-speed electronic machines of today have created entirely
new technical possibilities in automatic control of industrial processes. First designed
for solving Mathematical problems, they soon paved the way for a new field of science
— cybernetics — that studies general principles of control both in life and non-live
systems. The importance of cybernetics is great in the sphere of engineering sciences.
A newly developed field of knowledge is technical cybernetics. Its objectives are to
control automatic industrial processes, to study problems of transmission of
information and to develop new principles of automatic control.
One of the main problems of technical cybernetics is the development of control
algorithms to be used in processing and control of information flows. The algorithms
worked out for employment in control machines are called programs. These are based
on subdivision of the computation process into simple arithmetical operations and on
determination of the logical operations to be performed with a view to fulfil the
program which gives the sequence of the machine's operations, and must be coded or
expressed in the adopted code system.
Two systems of computers are now created for control computer design. One of
these is the development of general-purpose control machines which may have much
wider application but re -ire more complicated logical circuitry and a greater number of
instructions and commands employed in the computer. This approach permits control
of a great variety of industrial units with the aid of one and the same computer.
The second system utilizes modern microcomputer techniques to develop
special-purpose machines designed to control a particular process. This leads to the
creation of more easily operated and low-cost control computers. Tests of some control
computers manufactured for specific industrial units have shown their efficiency and
quite sufficient reliability.
In our country both systems of control are applied. Electronic digital computers
perform both arithmetical and logical operations, making it possible to govern
processes under rather complicated conditions.
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AUTOMATION
Automation is the system of manufacture performing certain tasks, previously
done by people, by machines only. The sequences of operations are controlled automatically. The most familiar example of a highly automated system is an assembly
plant for automobiles or other complex products.
The term automation is also used to describe nonmanufacturing systems in
which automatic devices can operate independently of human control. Such devices as
automatic pilots, automatic telephone equipment and automated control systems are
used to perform various operations much faster and better than could be done by
people.
Automated manufacturing had several steps in its development. Mechanization
was the first step necessary in the development of automation. The simplification of
work made it possible to design and build machines that resembled the motions of the
worker. These specialized machines were motorized and they had better production
efficiency.
Industrial robots, originally designed only to perform simple tasks in
environments dangerous to human workers, are now widely used to transfer,
manipulate, and position both light and heavy workpieces performing all the functions
of a transfer machine.
In the 1920s the automobile industry for the first time used an integrated system
of production. This method of production was adopted by most car manufacturers and
became known as Detroit automation.
The feedback principle is used in all automatic-control mechanisms when
machines have ability to correct themselves. Using feedback devices, machines can
start, stop, speed up, slow down, count, inspect, test, compare, and measure. These
operations are commonly applied to a wide variety of production operations.
Computers have greatly facilitated the use of feedback in manufacturing
processes. Computers gave rise to the development of numerically controlled
machines. The motions of these machines are controlled by punched paper or magnetic
tapes. In numerically controlled machining centres machine tools can perform several
different machining operations.
More recently, the introduction of microprocessors and computers have made
possible the development of computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacture
(CAD and CAM) technologies. When using these systems a designer draws a part and
indicates its dimensions with the help of a mouse, light pen, or other input device.
After the drawing has been completed the computer automatically gives the
instructions that direct a machining centre to machine the part.
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Semi-conductors
The term "Semi-conductors" means "half-conductor", that is, a material whose
conductivity ranges between that of conductors and non-conductors of insulators.
They include a great variety of elements (silicon, germanium, selenium,
phosphorus and others), many chemical compounds (oxides, sulphides) as well as
numerous ores and minerals.
While the conductivity of metals is very little influenced by temperature, the
conductivity of semi-conductors increases sharply with heating and falls with cooling.
This dependence has opened great prospects for employing semi-conductors in
measuring techniques. Light as well as heat increases the con - ductivity of semiconducting materials, this principle being used in creating photo resistances. It is also
widely applied for switching on engines, for counting parts on a conveyer belt, as well
as for various systems of emergency signals and for re-producing sound in
cinematography. Besides reacting to light, semi - conductors react to all kinds of
radiations and are therefore employed in designing electronic counters.
Converting heat into electricity without using boilers or other machines was one
of the most complicated engineering problems. This could be done by means of metal
thermocouples which later were made of semi-conductors that generated ten times as
much electricity as the metal ones.
Sunlight, like heat, can feed our electric circuits. Photocells made of semiconducting materials are capable of transforming ten per cent of sun-ray energy into
electric power. By burning wood which has accumulated the same amount of Molar
energy, we obtain only fractions of one per cent of electric power. The electricity
generated by semi-conductor thermocouples can produce not only heat but also cold,
this principle being used in manufacturing refrigerators.
Semi-conducting materials are also excellent means of maintaining a constant
temperature irrespective of the surrounding temperature changes. The latter can vary
over a wide range, for example, from 50° below 0° to 100° above 0°.
Semi-conductors are determining the progress of radio engineering, automation,
chemistry, electrical engineering and many other fields of science and technique.
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Resistance and Resistivity
Every material offers some resistance to the flow of an electric current through
it. The resistance of a conductor depends on its material. It also depends on its
temperature. Materials change the value of resistance with change in their temperature.
Different materials also have different melting points. Good conductors, like the metals
copper, silver, and aluminium, offer very little resistance, while non-conductors, like
glass, wood and paper, offer a very high resistance. The resistance of nichrome is
rather high.
Resistance of conductors and their resistivity have different units. The unit by
which resistance is measured is called the ohm, in honour of the German physicist
Ohm.
The unit of resistance is the ohm while the unit of resistivity is the hm • m. The
standard international ohm is defined as the resistance offered to a steady electric
current by a column of mercury 1 sq.mm in cross-section and 106.3 cm long at a
temperature of 0°.
There are several factors that determine the electrical resistance of any wire: a)
the material which it is composed of; b) the size of the wire; c) its temperature.
In more general terms, the resistance of a wire is proportional to its length and
inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area (provided the temperature of a
conductor remains constant). This is Ohm's law.
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Electric shock. Safety Electric System
The strength of current depends on both the voltage and on the resistance in a
circuit. A current of 50ma is dangerous for a man; it may result in an electric shock.
One gets an electric shock in case one touches live conductors when the power is on.
And a current of l00ma and higher is lethal. Thus, before working on a circuit,
deenergize it and work on it with the power off.
Earthing system serves to protect attending personnel from electric shocks when
voltage appears on parts that are normally dead. The risk of an electric shock decreases
with decreasing voltage. In wet and hot atmosphere the risk of electric shock increases.
Safe voltage for circuits used in dry atmosphere is under 36V. When the power is on
contacts with live conductors are dangerous for life. When a live conductor is touched
with both hands the resistance of the conductor is from 10,000 to 50,000 ohms. When a
live conductor is touched with one hand the resistance is much higher. The higher is
the body resistance, the smaller is the current that flows through the body. Take it into
consideration and work with one hand if the power is on! Or work on the circuit with
the power off!
Thus measures are taken to protect attending personnel from contacts with live
parts of installations under voltage.
The danger of electric shock disappears provided the met al parts of installations
under voltage are connected with ground by means of safety earthing. Connecting to
ground is made by means of measuring devices. The faulty parts should be detected,
eliminated, and replaced by new ones.
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MACHINE-TOOLS
Machine-tools are used to shape metals and other materials. The material to be
shaped is called the workpiece, Most machine-tools are now electrically driven.
Machine-tools with electrical drive are faster and more accurate than hand tools: they
were an important element in the development of mass-production processes, as they
allowed individual parts to be made in large numbers so as to be interchangeable.
All machine-tools have facilities for holding both the workpiece and the tool,
and for accurately controlling the movement of the cutting tool relative to the
workpiece. Most machining operations generate large amounts of heat, and use cooling
fluids (usually a mixture of water and oils) for cooling and lubrication.
Machine-tools usually work materials mechanically but other machining
methods have been developed lately. They include chemical machining, spark erosion
to machine very hard materials to any shape by means of a continuous high-voltage
spark (discharge) between an electrode and a workpiece. Other machining methods
include drilling using ultrasound, and cutting by means of a laser beam. Numerical
control of machine-tools and flexible manufacturing systems have made it possible for
complete systems of machine-tools to be used flexibly for the manufacture of a range
of products.
Пояснения к тексту:
Machine-tools – станки
Workpiece – деталь
Spark erosion – электроискровая обработка
Range – ассортимент, диапазон
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AUTOMATED ASSEMBLY
Assembly operations have traditionally been performed manually, either at
single assembly workstations or on assembly lines with multiple stations. Owing to the
high labour content and high cost of manual labour, greater attention has been given in
recent years to the use of automation for assembly work. Assembly operations can be
automated using production line principles if the quantities are large, the product is
small, and the design is simple (e.g., mechanical pencils, pens, and cigarette lighters).
For products that do not satisfy these conditions, manual assembly is generally
required.
Automated assembly machines have been developed that operate in a manner
similar to machining transfer lines, with the difference being that assembly operations,
instead of machining, are performed at the workstations. A typical assembly machine
consists of several stations, each equipped with a supply of components and a
mechanism for delivering the components into position for assembly. A workhead at
each station performs the actual attachment of the component. Typical workheads
include automatic screwdrivers, welding heads and other joining devices. A new
component is added to the partially completed product at each workstation, thus
building up the product gradually as it proceeds through the line. Assembly machines
of this type are considered to be examples of fixed automation, because they are
generally configured for a particular product made in high volume. Programmable
assembly machines are represented by the component-insertion machines employed in
the electronics industry.
Пояснения к тексту:
Assembly – сборка, монтаж
Owing to – из-за, по причине
Attachment – скрепление
Screwdriver – отвертка
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ROBOTS IN MANUFACTURING
Today most robots are used in manufacturing operations. The applications of
robots can be divided into three categories:
1. material handling; 2. processing operations; 3. assembly and inspection.
Material-handling is the transfer of material and loading and unloading of machines.
Material-transfer applications require the robot to move materials or work parts from
one to another. Machine loading and unloading operations utilize a robot to load and
unload parts. This requires the robot to be equipped with a gripper that can grasp parts.
In robotic processing operations, the robot manipulates a tool to perform a
process on the work part. Examples of such applications include spot welding,
continuous arc welding, spray painting, grinding. Spot welding of automobile bodies is
one of the most common applications of industrial robots. The robot positions a spot
welder against the automobile panels and frames to join them.
The third application area of industrial robots is assembly and inspection. The
use of robots in assembly is expected to increase because of the high cost of manual
labour. Assembly methods that are satisfactory for humans are not always suitable for
robots. Screws and nuts are widely used for fastening in manual assembly, but the
same operations are extremely difficult for a one-armed robot. Inspection is another
area of factory operations in which the utilization of robots is growing. In a typical
inspection job, the robot positions a sensor with respect to the work part and
determines whether the part answers the quality specifications. In nearly all industrial
robotic applications, the robot provides a substitute for human labour.
Пояснения к тексту:
Handling – обращение
Spot welding – точечная сварка
Continuous arc welding – непрерывная электродуговая сварка
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TYPES OF SOFTWARE
A computer to complete a job requires software — programs for directing the
operation of a computer or electronic data.
Software is the final computer system component. These computer programs
instruct the hardware how to conduct processing. Software determines the order in
which these operations are performed.
Programs usually fall in one of two categories: system software and applications
software.
System software controls standard internal computer activities. An operating
system, for example, is a collection of system programs that aid in the operation of a
computer regardless of the application software being used. When a computer is first
turned on, one of the system programs is booted or loaded into the computers memory.
This software contains information about memory capacity, the model of the processor,
and more. Once the system software is loaded, the applications software can be
brought in.
System programs are designed for the specific pieces of hardware. These
programs are called drivers and coordinate peripheral hardware and computer
activities. User needs to install a specific driver in order to activate a peripheral device.
Applications software satisfies your specific need. As the productivity of the
hardware has increased greatly in recent years, the programmers nowadays tend to
include as much as possible in one program to make software interface look more
attractive to the user. Data communication within and between computers systems is
handled by system software. Communications software transfers data from one
computer system to another. These programs usually provide users with data security
and error checking along with physically transferring data between the two computer's
memories.
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AUTOMATED PRODUCTION LINES
An automated production line consists of a series of workstations connected by a
transfer system to move parts between the stations. This is an example of fixed
automation, since these lines are set up for long production runs, making large number
of product units and running for several years between changeovers. Each station is
designed to perform a specific processing operation, so that the part or product is
constructed stepwise as it progresses along the line. A raw work part enters at one end
of the line, proceeds through each workstation and appears at the other end as a
completed product.
Modern automated lines are controlled by programmable logic controllers,
which are special computers that can perform timing and sequencing functions
required to operate such equipment. Automated production lines are utilized in many
industries, mostly automobile, where they are used for processes such as machining
and pressworking.
Machining is a manufacturing process in which metal is removed by a cutting or
shaping tool, so that the remaining work part is the desired shape. Machinery and
motor components are usually made by this process. In many cases, multiple
operations are required to completely shape the part. If the part is mass-produced, an
automated transfer line is often the most economical method of production. Many
separate operations are divided among the workstations.
Pressworking operations involve the cutting and forming of parts from sheet
metal. Several presses are connected together in sequence by handling mechanisms
that transfer the partially completed parts from one press to the next, thus creating an
automated pressworking line.
Пояснения к тексту:
Machining – механическая обработка
Cutting tool – режущий инструмент
In sequence – один за другим
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Applications of Automation and Robotics in Industry
Manufacturing is one of the most important application area for automation
technology. There are several types of automation in manufacturing.
1. Fixed automation, sometimes called «hard automation» refers to automated
machines in which the equipment configuration allows fixed sequence of processing
operations. These machines are programmed by their design to make only certain
processing operations. They are not easily changed over from one product style to
another. This form of automation needs high initial investments and high production
rates. That is why it is suitable for products that are made in large volumes. Examples
of fixed automation are machining transfer lines found in the automobile industry,
automatic assembly machines and certain chemical processes.
2. Programmable automation is a form of automation for producing products in
large quantities, ranging from several dozen to several thousand units at a time. For
each new product the production equipment must be reprogrammed and changed over.
This reprogramming and changeover take a period of non-productive time. Production
rates in programmable automation are generally lower than in fixed automation A
numerical-control machine-tool is a good example of programmable automation. The
program is coded in computer memory for each different product style and the
machine-tool is controlled by the computer programme.
3. Flexible automation is a kind of programmable automation. Programmable
automation requires time to reprogram and change over the production equipment for
each series of new product. This is lost production time, which is expensive. In flexible
automation the number of products is limited so that the changeover of the equipment
can be done very quickly and automatically. The reprogramming of the equipment in
flexible automation is done at a computer terminal without using the production
equipment itself. Flexible automation allows a mixture of different products to be
produced one right after another.
Пояснения к тексту:
Rate – скорость, темп
Assembly machines – сборочные машины
Changeover – переход, переналадка
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VIRUSES AND VACCINES IN COMPUTER INDUSTRY
The terms viruses and vaccines have entered the jargon of the computer industry
to describe some of the bad things that can happen to computer systems and programs.
Unpleasant occurrences like the March 6, 1991, attack of the Michelangelo virus will
be with us for years to come. In fact, from now on you need to check your IBM or
IBM-compatible personal computer for the presence of Michelangelo before March 6
every year — or risk losing all the data on your hard disk when you turn on your
machine that day. And Macintosh users need to do the same for another intruder, the
Jerusalem virus, before each Friday the 13th, or risk a similar fate for their data.
A virus, as its name suggests, is contagious. It is a set of illicit instructions that
infects other programs and may spread rapidly. The Michelangelo virus went
worldwide within a year. Some types of viruses include the worm, a program that
spreads by replicating itself; the bomb, a program intended to sabotage a computer by
triggering damage based on certain conditions — usually at a later date; and the Trojan
horse, a program that covertly places illegal, destructive instructions in the middle of
an otherwise legitimate program. A virus may be dealt with by means of a vaccine, or
antivirus, program, a computer program that stops the spread of and often eradicates
the virus.
Transmitting a Virus. Consider this typical example. A programmer secretly
inserts a few unauthorized instructions in a personal computer operating system
program. The illicit instructions lie dormant until three events occur together: 1. the
disk with the infected operating system is in use; 2. a disk in another drive contains
another copy of the operating system and some data files; and 3. a command, such as
COPY or DIR, from the infected operating system references a data file. Under these
circumstances, the virus instructions are now inserted into the other operating system.
Thus the virus has spread to another disk, and the process can be repeated again and
again. In fact, each newly infected disk becomes a virus carrier.
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