Why did the Weimar Republic
Survive 1919 – 1923?
• Did the Weimar Government stand a chance?
– Which of the following posed the greatest threat to
Democracy taking root in Germany:
– Place them in an order of greatest threat to
democracy:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Limited Nature of the 1918 German Revolution
The Weimar Constitution
The Treaty of Versailles
Right Wing Extremism
Left Wing Extremism
The Economic Crisis
Attitudes of the German elite
Attitudes of ordinary Germans
Why did the Weimar Republic
Survive 1919 – 1923?
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Limited Nature of German Revolution
The Weimar Constitution
The Treaty of Versailles
Right Wing Extremism
Left Wing Extremism
The Economic Crisis
Attitudes of the German elite
Attitudes of ordinary Germans
• Compare your list to your neighbours
– Do you need to rewrite your list?
– Can you agree on a common list?
Why did the Weimar Republic
Survive 1919 – 1923?
• Page 57 Hite and Hinton
– Read events 1 to 12
• With a partner decide whether you agree with a)
or with b) or with neither!
1924 – 1929 The Golden Age of
Weimar?
• What evidence can you find that life
got better for the majority of Germans
between these years?
– Culturally
– Economically
– Foreign Policy
– Stability
A Golden Age?
Culture
• A period of
experimentation
Pillars
Of Society
George
Grosz
– Liberal (anything goes)
– Live for today!
(Hyperinflation)
• Dadaism
• Surrealism
• Bauhaus
• Democratising Art
– Making it accessible to the
masses?
– Reflecting the Zeitgeist
– Backlash by Conservatives
Examples of
Artform
Reasons to
Like
Reasons to
Hate
Painting
Literature
Music/Opera
Theatre
Architecture
Film
Cabaret
Radio
Use pages 90 – 95 of Hite and Hinton to complete
The Golden Age of Weimar?
Economics?
• Hyperinflation came under control
– Stresemann
• Rentenmark
• Dawes Plan - Repayments negotiated
– First 5 years fixed repayments
» From 1 billion marks up to 2.5 billion marks
» Then payments according to economic performance
of German economy
– Allies to control Railways, Reichsbank and customs
duties as collateral
– All Allies must agree on any further sanctions
» i.e. not France Alone
Did Stresemann usher in a period
of prosperity – 1924 – 1929?
Examples of improvements in the
German Economy
Examples of a decline in the
German Economy
• Use pages 74 – 76 to find evidence for the
above table.
– It may be useful to refer to the economic
concepts on page 73
The Golden Age of Weimar?
Foreign Policy?
• Stresemann’s Fulfillment Strategy
– Restore German Power and Prosperity
but realising that Germany was in no
condition to challenge Allies militarily
– He would comply with the Treaty of
Versailles, but would also try to negotiate
to get it revised
– Revisions wanted:
•
•
•
•
Reparations to be greatly reduced
Ruhr and Rhineland occupations to end
Eastern Borders to be revised
Military sanctions to be ended
The Golden Age of Weimar?
Foreign Policy?
• How to achieve revisions
– Through negotiations
• no military stick to use
– Gaining confidence of Western powers
• Through compliance
• Ending German Diplomatic isolation
– Using economic power as bargaining chip
• Large market with a great potential
– Develop relations with USA
• To gain economic aid
– Satisfy to France that Germany poses no military
danger
• So France will leave Ruhr and allow Rhineland to be
remilitarised
– Develop relations with USSR
• A bargaining chip to frighten Western powers
The Golden Age of Weimar?
Foreign Policy?
When was it?
Dawes Plan
Locarno Pact
League of Nations
Treaty of Berlin
End of Allied
Occupation
Kellogg-Briand
Pact
Young Plan
What was it?
Advantages to
Germany?
How successful was Stresemann’s
Foreign Policy
• Internationally
– Restored Diplomatic Relations
– Promise of removal of Allies from German soil
– Reparations renegotiations allowed German economy to
recover
– But Eastern European relations/opportunities missed
• Domestically
– Foreign Policy successes not dramatic enough for
electorate to appreciate
– To subtle, it seemed as if his fulfillment policy legitimised
harsh Treaty of Versailles
– Even economic success depended on goodwill of USA
– Nationalists unconvinced
The Golden Age of Weimar?
Political Stability?
• Look at graph on page 63
– How stable does the period 1924 – 1928 appear
– Descriptions of the party platforms can be found
on page 66
• Look at source 3.1 on page 62
– How many governments were there between
1924 and 1928?
– How many elections were there between 1924
and 1928?
• Can you account for this discrepancy?
• Was this a good sign for democracy in Germany?
• Did the Weimar constitution make unstable
government more or less likely? Why?
The Left loses to the Right
The Presidential Election of 1925
• The Pro-Weimar Ebert died suddenly in 1925.
• Weimar constitution allowed for 2 rounds if no-one got
over 50% in the 1st round
– Remarkably, new candidates could stand in the 2nd round
• The first round was indecisive
– Chart on page 69
• The left attempted to coalesce around the Zentrum
Marx
• The right found a new champion in the form of
Hindenburg
• The Communists refused to compromise with fatal
consequences for the left
– Stalin referred to Socialists as Social Fascists and ordered
KPD not to help SPD in any way.
26th April 1925
Votes
Candidate
Votes %
14.7
Hindenburg
DNVP
48
13.8
Marx
Zentrum
45
1.9
Thaelmann
KPD
6
• The new President had strong powers under the
Weimar constitution
– Ability to appoint and dismiss Chancellors and Ministers
– Article 48
• This election would come back to haunt the left!
Conservative Forces
• The Weimar Republic never really won over the
Conservative Germans or key opinion formers
– Eg Church leaders, Teachers, Newspaper editors, Industrialists,
Judges, Police, etc…
• Why not?
– Many appointed during Kaiser Wilhelm’s time
• Certainly educated during that period of Conservative rule
– Deep Conservative military tradition
• Prussian Junker tradition
–
–
–
–
Large Catholic conservative population
Treaty of Versailles fulfillment policy
Decadent Art forms and cultural expression
Freedom of speech given to all!
• Including reactionaries and anti-Weimar parties
– Costs involved in Socialist ideas of a Welfare State
• Page 70
– Assign speech bubble to appropriate conservative German
The Golden Years of 1924 – 1929
The Bottom Line
• They were a massive
improvement over 1919
– 1923
– Improved economy
– More stable and Peaceful
– Improved diplomatic
Status
– Culturally exciting
• But
– Only 5 ‘goodish’ years
– Hyperinflation damage not
entirely repaired
– People still angry at
Treaty of Versailles
– Conservative forces
frightened by new liberal,
decadent culture
– Stability dependent on
unstable and fickle
coalition forces
– Economic success
dependent on USA
The Coming of Fascist
Germany
Rise of Nazism: Hitler
• How important is the individual in
History?
– Borrowed ideas Mussolini, Darwin,
Rousseau, Hegel, Nietzche
– His interpretation of them?
• Conventional or Unconventional early
life?
– Hitler himself was very vague on his early
life
• Why?
• Significance?
– Page 55 of Hite and Hinton
Unusual Experiences
His Beliefs
His Skills/Strengths
His Weaknesses
Post Munich
1923 - 1929
• Trial
– Turned into blistering attack on Versailles,
Weimar and Kahr/Lossow
• Nationwide coverage
• Sympathetic Right wing judges
• 5 Years sentence (eligible for parole after 9months)
– Minimum for Treason
• 9 Months in Landsberg Prison
– Open prison
• Could receive visitors, presents, cards, etc…
– Dictated Mein Kampf to Hess
– Temporarily resigned from Party
• Allowed Strasser, Ludendorff and others fight over
what to do next
– Ride to the rescue on Release?
The Roller Coaster Ride
Jan Jun May Dec May Sep
1
1
1
1
1
1
9
9
9
9
9
9
1
2
2
2
2
3
9
0
4
4
8
0
Jul Nov Mar
1
1
1
9
9
9
3
3
3
2
2
3
SPD Social Democrats
165
102
100
131
153
143
133
121
120
Communists
KPD/USPD
22
88
62
45
54
77
89
101
81
Centre Party (Catholics)
91
64
65
69
62
68
75
70
74
DDP (Democrats)
75
39
28
32
25
20
4
2
5
Right-wing parties
(BVP/ DVP/DNVP)
63
157
156
174
134
90
66
83
72
32
14
12
107
Date of Election
NSDAP (Nazis)
Others
Total Deputies
230 196 288
7
9
29
29
51
72
11
12
7
423
459
472
493
491
577
608
584
647
Biding his time
before Rebuilding
• 1925 Presidential election
– Ludendorff got less than 1% standing on a Nazi ticket
• Hitler Refounded the party in 1925
– Lays foundations of FuhrerPrinzip
• Gave Hitler supreme power over policy and strategy
– 25 points still kept
• More formal rituals introduced
– Uniforms
» Brown shirts for SA
– Flags
» Red, Black and White flags with Swastikas
» Wind up Communists
» Same colours as Wilhelmine flag
– Saluting
» Heil Hitler (Hess the instigator)
– Propaganda
» Image building
Organisation of Nazis
• The more socialist minded Strasser and Goebbels
had built up a reasonably strong party structure in
Protestant and Trade Union dominated North
Germany
– The Nazis would benefit but from this strategic shift
– However, Hitler personally now had a viable rivals for the
movement
• Strasser and Goebbels
• Bamberg conference 1926
– Divide and rule principle
• Outmanoeuvred more socialist minded Strasser
• Promoted the very able Goebbels
Creating a Movement
• He set up a network of local parties.
– Gauleiter appointed directly by Hitler
• He worked with other right-wing parties when necessary.
– Eg Hugenberg’s DNVP over anti-Young Plan campaign of 1929
– Hugenberg was the proprietor of a huge media empire
• He set up the Hitler Youth, to attract young people to the
party.
• He created the SS
– As a rival to the less than 100% dependable SA
• He put Josef Goebbels in charge of propaganda
– Appeal to feelings rather than argument.
– using traditional and new media
• posters, leaflets, radio and film, and organised rallies.
• He cultivated the support of wealthy businessmen
– promising them that he would destroy Communism and the
Trade Unions.
– This gave him the finance to run his campaigns.
• Built up the idea of Volksgemeinschaft
Hitler’s financiers
Hjalmar Schacht, Head of the Reichsbank, organised fund-raising parties
for Hitler.
Fritz von Thyssen, the German steel businessman
Alfred Krupp, the owner of Krupp steel firm
Emil Kirdorf, the coal businessman
IG Farben, the German chemicals firm, gave half the funds for the 1933
elections
The German car firm Opel (now a subsidiary of General Motors)
Schroeder Bank – on Jan. 3, 1933, Reinhard Schroeder met Hitler and
asked him to form a government.
And even some foreign firms including:
Henry Ford of Ford Motors. Hitler borrowed passages from Ford's book The
International Jew to use in Mein Kampf and had a picture of Ford on the wall
of his office.
Union Banking Corporation, New York (George Bush’s great-grandfather
was president of the Corporation)
WA Harriman and Co., the American shipping and railway company
(George Bush’s grandfather was vice-president)
Irenee du Pont, head of the American firm General Motors; he advocated
the creation of a super-race by spinal injections to enhance children of ‘pure’
blood.
Volksgemeinschaft
• The basis of National Socialism
– National Community
• Restore hope to all Germans
• Economic problems would be solved
• Traditional German values would be promoted
– The noble peasant and honest small businessmen would be
protected
– Militarism and respect restored to its preeminent position in
German society
• Germans would help themselves
• Split personality of National Socialism
– Equal opportunities for all Germans
• But only pure blood Germans
• Volksgemeinschaft not available to other lesser peoples
– Jews particularly excluded
– Notably, monarchists excluded privately (but not publicly)
But still little success pre 1930
Jan Jun May Dec May Sep
1
1
1
1
1
1
9
9
9
9
9
9
1
2
2
2
2
3
9
0
4
4
8
0
Jul Nov Mar
1
1
1
9
9
9
3
3
3
2
2
3
SPD Social Democrats
165
102
100
131
153
143
133
121
120
Communists
KPD/USPD
22
88
62
45
54
77
89
101
81
Centre Party (Catholics)
91
64
65
69
62
68
75
70
74
DDP (Democrats)
75
39
28
32
25
20
4
2
5
Right-wing parties
(BVP/ DVP/DNVP)
63
157
156
174
134
90
66
83
72
32
14
12
107
Date of Election
NSDAP (Nazis)
Others
Total Deputies
230 196 288
7
9
29
29
51
72
11
12
7
423
459
472
493
491
577
608
584
647
The Young Plan 1929
• 1929 Renegotiation of Reparations repayments
– Actually significantly eased repayments
• Referendum called
– Nazis join with Hugenburg’s Nationalist DNVP in
denouncing the Young Plan
• If you supported the Young Plan – you were in favour of the
Treaty of Versailles
– Hugenburg owned a vast media empire
• Gave Nazis first significant nationwide exposure
• Also gave Nazis some nationalist credibility by being
identified with Hugenburg and anti-Treaty campaign
– Only received 14% in referendum
• But
– Nazis identified as being a serious opponent to the
Government
The Wall Street Crash
• America sneezes
– 1929 Sudden collapse in Wall Street Shares
• Widespread panic selling
• Urgent need for US investors to repatriate capital invested
abroad
• Germany Catches a cold
– US short term loans had been invested in long
term projects in Germany
– Severe difficulties for German companies in
covering capital outflows
– Deflationary effect on economy
• Germans still worried about Hyperinflation
– Deficit financing frowned upon
– Classical economic model praised balanced budgets
• Massive layoffs and unemployment ensue
Despair
• Paramilitary units blossom
– Brownshirts offer food, clothing and accommodation for
recruits
• Likewise
– Stahlhelm
– Communist Red Shirts
– SPD’s Reichsbanner
• Bored, hungry, desperate recruits joined these
paramilitary groups and fought proxy battles in the
streets
• Violence bred violence
• Authorities losing control of large sectors of urban
centres
Mass Unemployment
• Registered unemployed increased from:
– 1.6 million in October 1929
– 6.12 million by February 1932
– In fact, it was probably nearer 8 million in total (33%
of working population)
– Including dependants, 23 million people were
directly effected by unemployment
• Germany’s Insurance system stretched to
breaking point and beyond
– Only designed with 800,000 in mind
– Increased governmental expenditures when
government trying to balance books.
Fall of Müller Government, 1930
• Dispute over Unemployment benefit
– Right wing DVP wanted to cut back
unemployment payments
• Balance books as per classical economic orthodoxy
– Left Wing (Trade Union sympathetic) SPD
wanted to protect unemployment benefits
• Fundamental disagreement plus increasing
lawlessness in Germany lead to resignation
of Muller government
– March 1930
Brüning Government
• President Hindenburg appointed
Centrist/liberal government under
Brüning
– Imposed austerity budget
• i.e. cuts to balance budget
• Defeated by parliament but passed by Article
48 (presidential decree)
• Parliament still protested so Hindenburg
dissolved parliament and called for new
elections
The Nazi Party’s First Electoral
Breakthrough
• Nazis win 107 seats
– Up from 12 in previous election
• Although Communists also do well
– Up to 77 seats
• Nazis not tainted by association with
government policies
– Purely oppositional
– Seem to offer an alternative
– Soup kitchens, brown shirts, etc… seem to offer
some practical examples of their good intentions
Brüning Government hobbles along
• Pro-Republic parties do poorly in elections
• Brüning needs to have tacit support of SPD to
avoid being voted down by anti-Republic parties
– i.e. Nazis and Communists.
• What’s in it for SPD?
– SPD hopes that it can restrain worst excesses of austerity
measures
– SPD hoping to avoid Brüning having to turn to Nazis for
support
– SPD needed support of Brüning’s Catholic party in order
to continue running Prussia State legislature
• Costs to SPD
– SPD unable to offer opposition
– SPD will be associated with unpopular Austerity measures
Brüning Government hobbles along
• Nazis turned up in their brownshirts
• Nazis and Communists frequently shouted down
speakers
– Fights often broke out in or around the parliament building
• Brüning had no clear majority
– Increasingly relied on using Hindenburg’s Article 48 to get
laws passed
– Parliamentary sessions were cut back to avoid
unnecessary confrontations
• 1930 it met for 94 days
• 1931 it met for 42 days
• 1932 it met for just 13 days!
• The precedent for an authoritarian government had
accidentally been set.
The Fatal Split in the Left!
• SPD steadily lost support
– Blamed for coming up with Weimar benefit system in the
first place
– Seen as being ineffective in standing up to austerity
measures
– Unable to form a government by itself
– Losing support to more activist and oppositionist
Communists and even to National Socialists
• KPD (communists)
– Under strict orders from Stalin not to help Social Fascists
(SPD)
– Disorder in Germany seen as a good opportunity to
launch full communist revolution
The Harzburg Front
• Meanwhile the right seemed to be
unifying!
• Named after Bad Harzburg antirepublican rally
• Nationalists coalesce
– Press Baron Hugenburg’s DNVP,
Monarchists and Stahlhelm
• Again, gives Nazis some respectability to
be seen with respectable nationalists.
Brüning’s increasing unpopularity
• Cuts
– General Government
expenditure restrained
– Taxes increased
– Civil Servant salaries
cut
– Wages frozen to 1927
levels
– Unemployment benefit
harder to get
• Increases
– Law and Order
– Military
– Agricultural subsidies
• Particularly for
Prussian estates!
• All in line with classical
economics!
• Hoping to hold out until
the general worldwide
economy picked up.
• Particularly concerned
with Hyperinflation!
1932 Presidential Election
• Brüning refused Hindenburg’s request to be reelected
by a simple unopposed plebiscite
– This strained Bruning’s relations with the President
• At the height of economic difficulties
• Hindenburg a stalwart of the nationalist right.
– However, he lost support in his traditional heartland east
– But, he gained new support from pro-republic parties in the
West eg SPD and Catholics
• Hindenburg received 53% of votes
• Hitler received 37% of votes
• Once again, even though they lost, it showed that the
Nazis were the only effective opposition
Brüning’s Downfall
• Scrapping Grain subsidies!
– It was difficult to continue subsidising aristocratic East
Prussian landowners in a time of national crisis.
– This was anathema to Hindenburg who was determined to
defend his aristocratic heritage
• Plus Backroom intrigue
– General Schleicher was negotiating with Hindenburg to see
his old friend von Papen take over chancellor
– Papen was a centrist too (so would not overly alienate
Brüning’s party.)
– The ‘Cabinet of Barons’ would offer a more nationalist
agenda for Germany and would protect aristocratic privilege.
– Schleicher promised new elections and a lifting of the ban on
the SA if Nazis did not oppose the creation of new nationalist
government
The Cabinet of Barons
• So called because of the quantity of
barons, aristocrats and nationalists in
the government.
• Ideologically confused government but
generally pro-monarchy and probusiness
– Unemployment benefit cut yet further
– Increased payments to Eastern farmers
• Had to call for new elections in 1932
The Real Nazi Breakthrough
• 1932 July elections