Public Management
Leaderships and Entrepreneurship
Friday, March 18, 2016
Hun Myoung Park, Ph.D.
Public Management & Policy Analysis Program
Graduate School of International Relations
Leaderships 1
• Capacity of someone to direct and energize
people to achieve goals.
• Bass (1997:17) states
– Focus of group processes, as a matter of personality,
– Matter of inducing compliance, as the exercise of
influence,
– Particular behaviors, as a form of persuasion,
– Power relation, as an instrument to achieve goals,
– Effect of interaction, as a differentiated role,
– Initiation of structure,
– Many combinations of these definitions
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Leaderships 2
• Leadership styles vary among individuals,
countries, and cultures
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Functions of General Management
• Allison (1983)
– Strategy: establishing objectives and priorities;
devising operational plans
– Managing internal components: organizing and
staffing; directing personnel and the personnel
management system; controlling performance
– Managing external constituencies: dealing with
external units subject to some common authority; with
independent organizations; with the press and the
public
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Executive Roles
• Mintzberg (1972)
Interpersonal
Figurehead
Leader
Liaison
Informational
Monitor
Disseminator
Spokesperson
Decisional
Entrepreneur
Disturbance
handler
Resource
allocator
Negotiator
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Management Skill Topics
• Whetton and Cameron (2002)
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Self awareness
Managing personal stress
Creative problem solving
Managing conflicts
Improving employee performance, motivating others
Effective delegation and joint decision making
Gaining power and influence
Establishing supportive communication
Improving group decision making
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Benchmarks Scales
• McCauley, Lombardo, and Usher (1989)
– Resourcefulness; doing whatever it takes; being a
quick study
– Building and mending relationships; leading
subordinates; compassion and sensitivity
– Straightforwardness and composure; setting a
developmental climate; confronting problem
subordinates team orientation; balance between
personal life and work
– Decisiveness; self-awareness; hiring talented staff;
putting people at easy; acting with flexibility
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Types of Leadership 1
• Burns (1978)
• Transactional Leaders
– Motivate followers by recognizing their needs and
providing rewards in exchange for their performance
and support.
• Transformational Leaders
– Rely on power but not in a controlling centralized way.
– Raise followers goals to a higher plane, to a focus on
transcendental, higher-level goals (self-actualization)
– Have talent for coupling visions of success to
empowerment and motivation
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Types of Leadership 2
• Bass (1995, 1998)
• Transformational behaviors
– Idealized influence
– Intellectual stimulation
– Individual consideration
– Inspirational motivation
• Transactional behaviors
– Contingent rewards
– Management by expectation
– Active management by exception
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Types of Leadership 3
• Bennis and Nanus (1985)
– “Leading” (guiding directions, actions or
opinions to “do the right thing”)
– “Managing” (accomplishing things efficiently
or “doing things right”)
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Charismatic Leadership 1
• Extension of work on transformational
leadership
• Charisma is treated as a matter of the
characteristics that followers attribute to
their leaders.
• Two strains
– The attribution theory of charismatic
leadership
– The self-concept theory of charismatic
leadership
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Charismatic Leadership 2
• In attribution theory, leaders who:
– Advocate a vision that is highly discrepant
from status quo
– Act in unconventional ways
– Demonstrate self-sacrifices
– Have confidence
– Use persuasive appeals rather than authority
or participative decision process
– Use capacity to access context and locate
opportunities
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Charismatic Leadership 3
• Self-Concept theory emphasizes
observable characteristics of leaders and
followers
– Personal identification
– Social identification and self-esteem
– Internalization of leader’s beliefs
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Sources of Power
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Legitimate: procedural legitimacy
Reword: tangible and intangible rewards
Coercive: punishment and sanction
Expert: knowledge, skills, expertise
Referent power: subordinates’ respect,
admiration, and loyalty
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Leadership Theories & Studies
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Trait theories
Ohio State leadership studies
The Blake and Moulton managerial grid
Fiedler’s theory of leadership
The Path-Goal theory of leadership
Vroom-Yetton normative model
Life Cycle theory
Attribuition models
Leader-Member Exchange theory
Operant Conditioning and Social Learning models
Cognitive Resource Utilization Theory
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Trait Models of Leadership
• Certain personality leadership traits constituting
their leadership capacity.
• Intelligence; knowledge and expertise;
dominance; self-confidence; high energy;
tolerance for stress; integrity and honesty;
maturity
• Attempts to isolate specific traits led to the
conclusion that no single characteristic
distinguishes leaders from non-leaders.
• What is the best? Does that always work?
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OSU Behavior Theory
• Developed questionnaires asking people to
report on the behaviors of their supervisors
• Findings indicated leaders fell into 2 categories
– Consideration: leaders’ concern for the relationships
with their subordinates
– Initiating structure: leaders’ emphasis on setting
standards, assigning roles, and pressing for
productivity and performance
• Criticisms
– Measures questioned
– Are 2 dimensions really enough for full picture?
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Managerial Grid
• Blake and Mouton (1984)
• Concern for people and production
– Authority-obedience management
– Country club management
– Impoverished management
– Team management
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Fiedler’s Contingency Theory
• Relationship between leader style,
organizational setting and effectiveness
• Two types of leaders
– High LPC: relationship-oriented
– Low LPC: task-oriented
• Three contingencies (situations)
– Leader-member relations
– Task structure
– Position power of the leader
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Fiedler’s Contingency Theory
• High LPC leaders are relationship oriented.
– Gave favorable ratings to LPC.
– High LPC leaders perform best when the
contingencies are mixed in regard to
favorability, that is, when conditions are
relatively ordered.
– The emphasis on relationships helps to
mitigate the negative effect of unfavorable
contingencies.
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Fiedler’s Contingency Theory
• Low LPC are task-oriented
– Rated more unfavorably
– Low LPC leaders perform best when the three
contingencies are unfavorable (disorder) or all
three are favorable (order).
– In short, task-oriented leadership is preferred
in very favorable or least favorable situation
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House’s Path-Goal Theory
• Based on the expectancy theory of motivation
and emphasizes the three motivational variables
– Valences
– Instrumentalities
– Expectancies
• Leader’s primary purpose is to motivate
followers by clarifying goals and identifying the
best paths to achieve those goals.
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House’s Path-Goal Theory
• Leader is to manipulate these 3 motivational
variables in desirable ways considering a variety
of leadership styles, characteristics of
subordinates, and situational factors
• Leadership (behavioral) styles:
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Directive,
Supportive,
Participative, and
Achievement-oriented
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Leader-Member Exchange Theory
• Leader-member exchange theory maintains that
the leader and each individual member of a work
group have a unique "dyadic" relationship.
• Each dyad is seen as a social exchange or
negotiated transaction of leader-member.
• The basic assumption is that leaders develop a
separate exchange relationship with each
individual subordinate.
• Exchange relationships can take two different
forms.
– High-exchange relationship
– Low-exchange relationship
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Communication of Culture
• Symbols: Physical objects, settings, and certain roles
within an organization convey information about its
values and basic assumptions.
• Language: Slang, songs, slogans, and jargons can all
carry the messages of a culture.
• Narratives: The people in an organization often repeat
stories, legends, sagas, and myths that convey
information about the organization’s history and
practices.
• Practices and Events: Repeated practices and special
events can transmit important assumptions and values.
They may include rites and ceremonies
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Contingencies and Variations
• Many variations in context and in the individual
officials surveyed account for the different views
about managerial roles of public managers.
– The level of the manger and the institutional context
varies.
– Public mangers must balance managerial tasks with
policymaking and with handling the political and
institutional environment (oversight agencies,
legislative and other executive authorities, clients and
constituents, and the media).
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Lessons from Leaderships
• No single leadership works in all circumstances
and contexts.
• Leadership is to be built, not fixed or given.
• Zone of acceptance (cooperation) & rationality
• Need to be exposed to many leadership cases,
for example, from history in the East and West
• Learn different styles and leadership skills;
examine circumstances (subordinate, task,
culture, etc.); and choose the most likely style
• “Chameleon leaderships”
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