Carbohydrates

Sugar molecules (saccharide)

Monosaccharides are single sugars that can be combined to form disaccharides and polysaccharides


Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides –
– the main fuels for cellular work
– used as raw materials to manufacture other organic molecules
Glucose
Fructose
Galactose
Glucose Fructose


Carbohydrates
Disaccharides
– Sucrose – glucose and fructose
– Lactose – glucose and galactose
 Lactase required to break it down. Lactose intolerance
– Maltose – glucose and glucose


Video from book ppt

Carbohydrates

– Glycogen – energy source/storage in animals
– Starch – energy source/storage in plants
– Cellulose – structural support in plant cells
– Chitin – forms the exoskeleton of insects

 monosaccharides
Carbohydrates

High Fructose Corn Syrup (HFCS)

Produced from corn

Break down the starch in corn, then form a sweet product similar to sucrose
– 55% fructose, 45% glucose
– https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6-uL2oW4dcY

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LiVwWaEmBhw

Sweeteners
Sucralose: 1000 x sweeter than sucrose (table sugar)
Splenda, Zerocal (Bangladesh), Sukrana,
SucraPlus, Candys, Cukren, and Nevella
Aspartame: 200x sweeter than sucrose (table sugar)
NutraSweet, Equal, Canderel

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LiVwWaEmBhw



Proteins
Proteins are
– involved in nearly every dynamic function in your body
– very diverse, over 10,000 different proteins, each with a specific structure and function, in the human body
Proteins are composed of differing arrangements of a common set of just 20 amino acid monomers

Proteins

– serve as catalysts
– regulate virtually all chemical reactions within cells

The functions of different types of proteins depend on their individual shapes.
– A “lock and key”

Enzyme video

Advanced https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NdMVRL4oaUo

Basic https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r1ryDVgx0zw


– transport proteins embedded in cell membranes
– defensive proteins, such as antibodies of the immune system
– signal proteins such as many hormones and other chemical messengers that help coordinate body activities
Proteins


Proteins
Other types of proteins include (continued)
– receptor proteins, built into cell membranes, which receive and transmit signals into your cells
– contractile proteins found within muscle cells
– structural proteins such as collagen, which form the long, strong fibers of connective tissues
– storage proteins, which serve as a source of amino acids for developing embryos in eggs and seeds.

Proteins

A protein is a polypeptide chain that contains hundreds or thousands of amino acids linked by peptide bonds produced by the ribosomes.

The amino acid sequence causes the polypeptide to assume a particular shape.
– This shape is critical!

Proteins

Amino acids all have
– an amino group
– a carboxyl group (which makes it an acid)
– a hydrogen atom
– An ‘R group,’ which determines the specific properties of each of the 20 amino acids used to make proteins.

Proteins

Amino acids (monomer) are connected together to form the polypeptide chain
(polymer) in a dehydration reaction


Proteins
The shape of the protein results from parts of the polypeptide interacting with itself and forming different levels of structure
– Primary
– Secondary
– Tertiary
– Quaternary

Proteins
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O5gN-IK6uKs

PRIMARY STRUCTURE + H
3
N
Amino end
Peptide bonds connect amino acids.
Amino acids

Figure 3.14-0-2
PRIMARY STRUCTURE + H
3
N
Amino end
Peptide bonds connect amino acids.
Amino acids
Two types of
SECONDARY STRUCTURES
Alpha helix
Secondary structures are maintained by hydrogen bonds between atoms of the backbone.
Beta pleated sheet

Figure 3.14-0-3
PRIMARY STRUCTURE + H
3
N
Amino end
Peptide bonds connect amino acids.
Amino acids
Two types of
SECONDARY STRUCTURES
Alpha helix
Secondary structures are maintained by hydrogen bonds between atoms of the backbone.
TERTIARY STRUCTURE
Beta pleated sheet
Tertiary structure is stabilized by interactions between R groups.

Figure 3.14-0-4
PRIMARY STRUCTURE + H
3
N
Amino end
Peptide bonds connect amino acids.
Amino acids
Two types of
SECONDARY STRUCTURES
Alpha helix
Secondary structures are maintained by hydrogen bonds between atoms of the backbone.
TERTIARY STRUCTURE
Beta pleated sheet
Tertiary structure is stabilized by interactions between R groups.
QUATERNARY
STRUCTURE
Polypeptides are associated into a functional protein.

Proteins



If a protein’s shape is altered, it can no longer function.
In the process of denaturation, a protein
– unravels
– loses its specific shape
– loses its function.
Proteins can be denatured by changes in salt concentration, changes in pH, or high heat.

Taste the enzymatic process

Take a saltine, hold it in your mouth for two minutes.

Try not to chew or swallow it – very challenging…

What is gluten?

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DXjpb7SFi3s

Lipids (fats)
– are water insoluble (hydrophobic, or waterfearing) compounds
– are important in long-term energy storage
 contain twice as much energy as a polysaccharide

Lipids

Lipids differ from carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids in that they are
– not huge molecules
– not built from monomers.

Lipids gycerol
Fatty acids


A fat is made of a glycerol molecule and three fatty acid chains
– Also called a triglyceride
A dehydration reaction combines a fatty acid to the glycerol molecule

Lipids


Saturated – all carbons completely filled or saturated with hydrogens
Solid at room temp

Lipids


Unsaturated fats – not completely filled with hydrogens, one or more double bonds
– Poly – multiple double bonds
– Mono – one double bond
Oils – liquid at room temp

Lipids

Trans fat – unsaturated fats that have been converted to saturated fats by changing a hydrogen (hydrogenation)
– Hydrogenated soybean oil, hydrogenated corn oil, etc.


Negative health affects – increase in heart disease
Banned in some cities, states, and countries, required labels for others

Cholesterol

An important molecule that helps transport lipids in the bloodstream
– LDL cholesterol – bad for your health – can increase the chance of heart attack and stroke
– HDL cholesterol – good for your health

Too much can cause arteries to clog

Lipids in the diet

Unsaturated fats – good in moderation
– Important for the body, and helps lower LDL and can increase
HDL
– Omega-3s (the oils found in salmon, flaxseed)

Saturated fats – use minimally, studies are mixed
– Can increase LDL

Trans fats – avoid
– Increases LDL and lowers HDL

Nucleic Acids

DNA and RNA are examples
– Deoxyribonucleic acid
– Ribonucleic acid

Provide the instructions for the cell to make proteins so the cell can function.



Nucleic Acids
Built from monomers of nucleotides
– Adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine
Added together to form full molecule
DNA or RNA

DNA shape is a Double Helix

Nucleic Acids

A gene is a section of DNA that provides the code to make a protein.

What foods give you energy?

How do cells get energy?

Cell Respiration

C YTOSOL
Glycolysis
Glucose
2
2 NADH
Pyruvate
2 NADH 6 NADH + 2 FADH
2
MITOCHONDRION
Pyruvate
Oxidation
2 Acetyl
CoA
Citric Acid
Cycle
Oxidative
Phosphorylation
(electron transport and chemiosmosis)
+ 2
ATP by substrate-level phosphorylation
O
2
CO
2
+ 2
ATP by substrate-level phosphorylation
H
2
O
Maximum per glucose:
+ about
28 ATP by oxidative phosphorylation
About
32 ATP

Food
Carbohydrates
Sugars
Glucose G3P
Glycolysis
Fats
Glycerol Fatty acids
Pyruvate
Acetyl
CoA
ATP
Proteins
Amino acids
Amino groups
Citric
Acid
Cycle
Oxidative
Phosphorylation

ATP needed to drive biosynthesis
ATP
Citric
Acid
Cycle
Amino groups
Amino acids
Proteins
Acetyl
CoA
Fatty acids
Glucose Synthesis
Pyruvate G3P Glucose
Glycerol
Fats
Sugars
Carbohydrates
Cells, tissues, organisms

Enzymes

– serve as catalysts
– regulate virtually all chemical reactions within cells

Enzymes
– SPEED UP chemical reactions!
– Spelling ends in ‘ase’

Enzymes

Enzymes take substrates
(reactants) and make products.

The enzyme is able to be reused many times

Enzymes

Enzymes speed up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy
– the amount of energy required to start a reaction.

Examples: Which enzyme breaks which substrate?