TCP/IP
• TCP/IP architecture
• IP (Internet Protocol) and ICMP (Internet Control
Message Protocol)
• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)/UDP (Used
Datagram Protocol)
• Internet Routing
• Multicast routing
• IPV6, DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol) and mobile IP (if time is allowed)
1
TCP/IP is a suite of protocols
1.
Application
Application
Application protocols: HTTP, FTP, SMTP
(over TCP) and SNMP, DNS (over UDP)
2. TCP: connection-oriented while
TCP
UDP: connectionless
3. IP: connectionless datagram, routing and
possible fragmentation, congestion control
UDP
4. Complementary protocols with IP: ICMP, ARP.
ICMP
IP
Physical
network
ARP
RARP
5. Different physical networks.
6. IP provides best-effort connectionless service
7. (Hierarchical) IP address. Intradomain and
interdomain routing, subnet, supernet.
2
Figure 8.1
1. Header may contain other information
such as sequence number in TCP PDUs.
2. Upper layer PDUs encapsulated
in lower layer PDUs, generally
keep unchanged during their traveling
Header contains source and
destination port numbers
HTTP Request
TCP
Header
3. Some fields of IP datagram packets are modified
during its way to destination.
Header contains:
source and destination
IP addresses; transport
protocol type
IP
Header
4. In general, data link frames changes each hop.
Header contains:
source and destination
Ethernet
physical addresses;
network protocol type Header
FCS
3
Figure 8.2
Machine A
Machine B
Application
Application
Transport
Transport
Router/Gateway
Internet
Internet
Network
Interface
Network
Interface
Network 1
Internet
Network
Interface
Network 2
1. Upper layer is just based on lower layer’s service, not implementation.
2. Routers/gateways route packets from source to destination
3. PDUs are passed down in sender, ups and downs
in routers, up in receiver.
4
Figure 8.3
IP protocol—the heart of TCP/IP architecture
•
•
•
•
•
IP packet
IP addressing
Subnet addressing
IP routing
Supernetting –CIDR (Classless Interdomain
Routing)
• Address resolution / Reverse address resolution
• Fragmentation / /reassembly
• ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol).
5
IP version 4 header
0
4
Version
8
IHL
16
Type of Service
Identification
Time to Live
19
24
31
Total Length
Flags
Protocol
Fragment Offset
Header Checksum
Source IP Address
Destination IP Address
Options
Padding
0.Fixed length of 20 bytes and variable-length up to 40 byte options then data.
1. Version: 4: current version, 5: real time stream packet (ST2), 6: IPng or IPv6.
2. IHL (Internet Header Length) in unit of 32-bit words, 5 if no options.
3. Type of Service: 3-bit priorities with 0 (normal) to 7 (control packet), 4 bits tags of
requirements: delay, throughput, reliability, and cost. 1 unused bit.
4. Total Length: header + data, maximum packet length:216-1 = 65535 bytes.
5. Identification, Flags, Fragment Offset: used for fragmentation and reassembly.
6. TTL (Time-to-Live): amount of time for a packet to live, mostly interpret as # of hops.
7. Protocol: 6: TCP, 17: UDP, 1: ICMP
8. Header checksum: internet Checksum algorithm, only on header, whenever TTL
change, checksum needed to be recomputed.
9. Source & destination address. 10: options: security level, source routing, timestamps
6
11: padding: make the header a multiple of 32-bit words.
Figure 8.4
Router’s work for IP
• When network interface passes over IP
packet to IP layer
– Compute the header checksum which is
compared with the checksum in the header.
– If valid, IP entity updates TTL and recompute
checksum
– Look up routing table to find next hop
– Forward to the next hop.
7
IP addressing
• A computer may have multiple IP addresses
• 32 bit address with two level hierarchies:
– network ID + host ID
• Routing could be based on network IDs to reduce
the size of routing table
• Network Ids are assigned by Internet Network
Information Center while host IDs are assigned by
local network administrator.
• Five classes of networks and different number of
bits for network IDs and host IDs.
8
Five classes of IP addresses
Bit position:
0 1 2 3
Class A
0
Class B
1 0
Class C
1 1 0
Class D
1 1 1 0
Class E
1 1 1 1
8
16
Net ID
31
Host ID
Net ID
Host ID
Net ID
Host ID
Multicast address
Reserved for experiments
1.Class A: 7 bit network ID and 24 bit host ID, so 126 networks & 16 million hosts per network.
2.Class B: 14 bit network ID and 16 bit host ID, so 16000 networks & 64000 hosts per network.
3. Class C: 21 bit network ID and 8 bit host ID, so 2 million networks and 254 hosts per network
4. Class D: multicast addresses
6. Class E: reserved.
7. ID with all 1s or all 0s has special purpose. All 1s means broadcast, all 0s means this.
9
Figure 8.5
IP address --IDs with all 1s and all 0s
Network ID
•
•
•
•
•
•
host ID
all 1s
all 1s
not all 1s
all 1s
all 1s
not all 1s
all 0s
all 0s
all 0s
not all 0s
not all 0s
all 0s
broadcast to local network
broadcast to the specified network
broadcast to the specified host on all networks (?)
this host
the specified host on this network
the specified network
127.x.y.z: x, y, z could be anything. Used for loopback.
When a host send a packet with this address, the packet will be
returned to the host. Two usages: interprocess communication on
a local host via TCP/IP ; debugging purpose.
10
IP address—dotted decimal notation
•Four bytes denoted as four decimal numbers
–10000000 10000111 01000100 00000101
–128.135.68.5
Class A:
1.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255
Class B:
128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255
Class C:
192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255
Class D:
Class E:
224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255
240.0.0.0 to 247.255.255.255
11
Subnet addressing
Original 1 0
address
Net ID
Subnetted
address 1 0
Net ID
Host ID
Subnet ID
Host ID
Class B problems: a class B network (typical a university network) has about 64000
hosts. Big burden on administrator. Moreover a campus may need multiple local
networks.Therefore another hierarchical level: subnet.
Advantage of subneting is that outside hosts still see the hosts within the network
as two levels.
The length of subnet ID is variable. The subnet ID and its length is determined by
subnet mask.
A subnet mask consists of all 1s in network ID and subnet ID but all 0s in host ID.
12
Figure 8.6
Design of subnets
• Suppose a university is assigned class B network: 150.100
• Assume this university has many LANs but each LAN has
no more than 100 hosts.
• Therefore 7 bits for hosts are enough.
• As a result, 9 bits for subnetworks.
• The subnet mask will be
11111111 11111111 11111111 10000000, i.e., 255.255.255.128
• If given a IP address: 150.100.12.176, find its subnet ID:
– 150.100.12.176 i.e., 10010110 01100100 00001100 10110000
–
and
11111111 11111111 11111111 10000000
==
10010110 01100100 00001100 10000000
i.e.,
150.100.12.128
The hosts within this subnet have IP addresses from
150.100.12.129 to 150.100.12.254
13
Address assignment with subnets and subnet routing
H1
H2
150.100.12.154
150.100.12.176
150.100.12.128
150.100.12.129
150.100.0.1
To the rest of
the Internet
R1
150.100.12.4
H3
H4
150.100.12.24
150.100.12.55
150.100.12.0
150.100.12.1
1.A site with class B IP address: 150.100.0.1
R2
H5
2. Outside see all packets to any host within
150.100.15.54
150.100.15.11
the network is to get the packets to
network 150.100.0.1
150.100.15.0
3. Suppose a packet with 150.100.15.11 arrive at R1 from outside:
R1 finds the subnet first by doing the following:
150.100.15.11 & 255.255.255.128 = 10010110.01100100.00001111.00001011
& 11111111.11111111.11111111.10000000
= 10010110.01100100.00001111.00000000 i.e., 150.100.15.0
R1 looks up its routing table for 150.100.15.0, which has the next hop: 150.100.12.1 (R2)
R1 forwards the packet to R2. R2 does similarly to find it is H5 and forwards to H5. 14
Figure 8.7
IP routing
• IP entities in sender and routers work together to route a
packet from source to destination.
– Sender’s IP entity first looks up its routing table. If the
destination is directly connected to it by a link or a LAN, the
sender sends the packet to the destination directly
– Otherwise, the sender will send the packet to default router,
which is directly connected to the sender.
– The router first check whether a packet is for itself. If yes,
pass up to its upper layer. Otherwise look up its routing table
to find the next hop and forward to the next hop.
• The routing table:
– Destination IP, next hop ID, outgoing interface, flags
– Flags: H flag, H=1 to a host, H=0: to a network
G flag: G=1 to gateway, G=0: to destination
15
The order to search routing table
1. For complete destination address, if
found, then forward a packet according to
next hop IP and flag G. Otherwise
2. For destination network ID. otherwise
3. For default router, otherwise
4. An ICMP “host unreachable error” is sent
back to the sender.
16
Routing table example: H5
(send an IP packet to 150.100.12.176)
H1
H2
150.100.12.154
150.100.12.176
150.100.12.128
150.100.12.129
150.100.0.1
To the rest of
the Internet
Destination
127.0.0.1
Default
150.100.15.0
R1
150.100.12.4
H3
H4
150.100.12.55
150.100.12.24
150.100.12.0
150.100.12.1
R2
next-hop
flags interface
127.0.0.1
H
lo0
150.100.15.54
G
emd0
150.100.15.11
emd0
H5
150.100.15.54
150.100.15.11
150.100.15.0
17
Figure 8.7
Routing example
• Suppose H5’s routing table
–
–
–
–
Destination
127.0.0.1
Default
150.100.15.0
next-hop
flags interface
127.0.0.1
H
lo0
150.100.15.54
G
emd0
150.100.15.11
emd0
• H5 will find default router and forward to it
• R2’s routing table
• R2 uses default router to forward the packet.
–
–
–
–
–
Destination
127.0.0.1
Default
150.100.15.0
150.100.12.0
next-hop
flags interface
127.0.0.1
H
lo0
150.100.12.4
G
emd0
150.100.15.11
emd1
150.100.12.1
emd1
18
Routing example (cont.)
• R1’s routing table
–
–
–
–
–
Destination
127.0.0.1
150.100.12.176
150.100.12.0
150.100.15.0
next-hop
flags interface
127.0.0.1
H
lo0
150.100.12.176
emd0
150.100.12.4
emd1
150.100.12.1
G
emd1
• R2 find the entry for destination IP:
150.100.12.176 and sends out to emd0.
19
CIDR: classless interdomain routing
• Historical story:
– 1987, a few visionaries predicted: 100,000 networks someday, most
experts pooh-poohed.
– 100,000th network connected in 1996.
• Problem: IP addresses soon run out of availability.
– classful addresses wastes millions of address space
– Three bears problem: A too large, C too small, need class B
• But class B is still too large for many organizations.
• Solution: CIDR (Classless InterDomain Routing)
– Allocate remaining class C networks in variable-size blocks.
– Examples: if a organization needs 2000 hosts, then allocate it a block
of 2048 addresses, i.e., 8 contiguous class C networks. If need 8000
hosts, then allocate a block of 8192 addresses, i.e., 32 contiguous class
C networks.
20
CIDR: classless interdomain routing (cont.)
Suppose an organization is allocated four contiguous class C networks:
205.100.0.0, 205.100.1.0, 205.100.2.0, 205.100.3.0.
Question: how to treat these four contiguous networks as one from outside?
Network mask which will mask out one common prefix for these four networks.
Question: what is the network mask for these four networks?
205.100.0.0 --- 11001101 . 01100100 . 00000000 . 00000000
205.100.1.0 --- 11001101 . 01100100 . 00000001 . 00000000
205.100.2.0 --- 11001101 . 01100100 . 00000010 . 00000000
205.100.3.0 --- 11001101 . 01100100 . 00000011 . 00000000
The common prefix: 11001101 . 01100100 . 000000
Therefore, network mask: 11111111 . 11111111 . 11111100 . 00000000, i.e., 255.255.252.0
In routing table, instead of putting all four networks entries, just put one entry:
205.100.0.0/22, where 22 indicates the network mask is 22 bits.
CIDR is also called supernetting because it “supernets” multiple networks into one.
21
A few discussions about CIDR
• it is possible that both supernet 205.100.0.0/22 and
205.100.0.0/20 appear in the routing table.
– Therefore, the IP address 205.100.1.1 will match both of them.
– Solution: longest prefix match. 205.100.1.1 will match
205.100.0.0/22.
• A prefix of arbitrary length, along with the network mask
of the same length, indicates a network number.
• The multiple contiguous networks can not begin at a
random class C network address but must begin at certain
boundary.
– E.g., 16 contiguous networks (i.e., 4096 addresses) can not begin
at 194.24.8.0. Instead, they must lie on a 4096-byte boundary. Such
as begin from 194.24.16.0 through 194.24.31.0.
• Go to Tanenbaum for more discussion.
22
Fragmentation and Reassembly
• MTU (maximum transmission unit): a
network generally has its MTU
– Ethernet: 1500 bytes, FDDI: 4464 bytes
• Fragmentation an IP packet if it is larger
than MTU
• Reassembly all packets of an IP packet into
the original IP packet at receiver.
23
Packet fragmentation
Source
Router
Destination
IP
IP
Network
Network
Fragmentation takes place at the sender / routers
Reassembly takes place at the receiver.
24
Figure 8.9
Fragmentation fields in IP header
• Identification (16 bits): identify which IP packet a particular fragment
belongs to. Unique regarding IP packets destined to the same host.
• Flags (3 bits): one unused, one is “don’t fragment” (DF) bit, another is
“more fragment” (MF). When DF is 1, then the IP packet is not
allowed to fragment. At this time, if the packet is longer than the
underlying MTU, then the packet will be discarded and an error will
be sent to source.
• Offset (13 bits): indicate the location of a fragment in a packet. Since
maximum IP packet length is 216, the offset is in the unit of 216/213 =8
bytes.
• In summary: an IP packet with DF=0 is fragmented into several
fragments with the same identification, all of which set MF=1 except
the last fragment which keeps its IP packet’s MF. The receiver will
reassembly all these segments with the same identification into its
original IP packet based on the three fields in these fragments.
25
Example—fragment a IP packet
Suppose a packet of 20 header plus 1484 data arrives at an X.25
network having an MTU of 576 bytes, do the fragmentation.
Analysis: maximum fragment=576-20=556 bytes.
556 is not the multiple of 8, thus set data length to 552.
break 1484 into 552+552+380. Therefore 3 fragments.
Total length
Original packet 1504
Fragment 1 572
Fragment 2 572
Fragment 3 400
ID
x
MF
0
Offset
0
x
x
x
1
1
0
0
69
138
26
Further segmentation
• Suppose the next network has MTU 324.
• So data is 324-20 =304, which is a multiple of 8
– Fragment 1: 572
x
• Fragment 11: 324 x
• Fragment 12: 268 x
1
0
1
1
0
38
x
1
69
• Fragment 21: 324 x
• Fragment 22: 268 x
1
1
69
107
x
0
138
• Fragment 31: 324 x
• Fragment 32: 96 x
1
0
138
176
– Fragment 2: 572
– Fragment 3: 400
27
A few words about fragmentation
Question: Do all the fragments travel along the same path?
NO.
Question: can reassembly be done by routers, not by receiver?
NO.
1.
Because fragments will travel along possible different paths,
a router can not get all the fragments corresponding a packet
2. Even it happens that all the fragments arrive at the same router which
can reassembly them, it is possible that the reassembled packet be
fragmented again.
3. Fragmentation is easy but reassembly is difficult because the fragments
may arrive out of order, letting routers do reassembly will make routers
complicated, thus violate IP motivation and end-to-end argument.
Fragmentation results in subtle performance penalty: if any fragment lost or error,
All fragments needs to be retransmitted.
28
Address Resolution –ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
H1
H2
150.100.76.20
150.100.76.21
H3
H4
150.100.76.22
150.100.76.23
ARP request (what is the MAC address of 150.100.76.22?)
H1
H2
H3
H4
ARP response (my MAC address is 08-00-5A-C5-3B-94)
The way for a host to find the physical address for a IP address.
Suppose H1 wants to find the physical address of H3:
1. H1 broadcasts a ARP request: what is the MAC address of 150.100.76.22?
2. (only) H3 gives ARP response: my MAC address is 08-00-5A-C5-3B-94.
H1 will cache H3’s MAC address for future use. Timer is needed to remove the cached
pair of IP and MAC addresses after certain time in case of MAC address change.
29
Figure 8.8
RARP---Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
• The MAC address of a host may be known, but
the IP address is not.
– E.g., a diskless computer at boot time can read its MAC
address but does not know its IP address, which is
stored at a server.
• RARP: getting IP address of a MAC address.
– The host broadcasts a RARP request: what is the IP
address of such a MAC address
– The server containing the IP address gives RARP
response: the IP address of such a MAC address is so
so.
30
ICMP: Intenet Control Message Protocol
• Deal with error and control messages
• ICMP messages are encapsulated in IP packet, but ICMP is
considered in the same layer as IP.
• Some message types: echo request/reply, timestamp
request/reply, destination unreachable, source quench,
redirect, time exceeded, parameter problem
• Examples:
– echo request/reply is used by ping program.
– Time exceeded message is used in traceroute program:
• Source host (running traceroute) sends messages to the
destination with TTL incremented by one per message,
beginning from 1.
• When a message arrive at a router and its TTL =0, the router will
send a time exceeded message back to source host, with the
router included in the message.
31