Resource
Perform and Function
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Contents
The Basics .....................................................................................................................................................3
Hydration ......................................................................................................................................................3
Protein ..........................................................................................................................................................4
Acid-Base ......................................................................................................................................................6
Fats ...............................................................................................................................................................8
Carbs ...........................................................................................................................................................10
Recovery .....................................................................................................................................................11
Toxins ..........................................................................................................................................................12
Endurance ...................................................................................................................................................12
Brain - Motivation.......................................................................................................................................12
Cardiopulmonary ........................................................................................................................................16
Circulation...................................................................................................................................................16
B12 ..............................................................................................................................................................17
Chlorophyll Supplementation.....................................................................................................................18
Circulation & Vasodilation .........................................................................................................................18
Mitochondria ..............................................................................................................................................19
Carnitine .....................................................................................................................................................20
Muscle ........................................................................................................................................................22
Protein ........................................................................................................................................................23
Carbs ...........................................................................................................................................................24
Cori-cycle and anaerobic concerns .............................................................................................................25
Fat ...............................................................................................................................................................27
Hydration ....................................................................................................................................................29
Enhancing Adaptation ................................................................................................................................30
Systemic Hormonal Effects .........................................................................................................................31
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The Basics
The following resource will help you understand our basic philosophy for eating for
health, well-being, and sporting performance.


o Building your basics - good eating practises
o Health giving foods
Nutritional Philosophy
Dietary and supplemental Intervention to enhance athletic performance
o Macros
o Timing
o Supplementation
Hydration
Maughan, R. J. (2003). "Impact of mild dehydration on wellness and on exercise performance." Eur.J Clin.Nutr.
57 Suppl 2: S19-S23.
Chronic mild dehydration is a common condition in some population groups, including especially the
elderly and those who participate in physical activity in warm environments. Hypohydration is recognised as a
precipitating factor in a number of acute medical conditions in the elderly, and there may be an association,
although not necessarily a causal one, between a low habitual fluid intake and some cancers, cardiovascular
disease and diabetes. There is some evidence of impairments of cognitive function at moderate levels of
hypohydration, but even short periods of fluid restriction, leading to a loss of body mass of 1-2%, lead to
reductions in the subjective perception of alertness and ability to concentrate and to increases in self-reported
tiredness and headache. In exercise lasting more than a few minutes, hypohydration clearly impairs performance
capacity, but muscle strength appears to be relatively unaffected
Burke, L. M. (2001). "Nutritional needs for exercise in the heat." Comp Biochem.Physiol A Mol.Integr.Physiol
128(4): 735-748.
Although hot conditions are not typically conducive to optimal sports performance, nutritional strategies
play an important role in assisting an athlete to perform as well as possible in a hot environment. A key issue is the
prevention of hypohydration during an exercise session. Fluid intake strategies should be undertaken in a cyclical
sequence: hydrate well prior to the workout, drink as much as is comfortable and practical during the session, and
rehydrate aggressively afterwards in preparation for future exercise bouts. There is some interest in
hyperhydration strategies, such as hyperhydration with glycerol, to prepare the athlete for a situation where there
is little opportunity for fluid intake to match large sweat losses. Recovery of significant fluid losses after exercise is
assisted by the simultaneous replacement of electrolyte losses. Carbohydrate (CHO) requirements for exercise are
increased in the heat, due to a shift in substrate utilization towards CHO oxidation. Daily food patterns should
focus on replacing glycogen stores after exercise, and competition strategies should include activities to enhance
CHO availability, such as CHO loading for endurance events, pre-event CHO intake, and intake of sports drinks in
events lasting longer than 60 min. Although CHO ingestion may not enhance the performance of all events
undertaken in hot weather, there are no disadvantages to the consumption of beverages containing 4-8% CHO
and electrolytes. In fact, the palatability of these drinks may enhance the voluntary intake of fluid. Although there
is some evidence of increased protein catabolism and cellular damage due to production of oxygen radicals during
exercise in the heat, there is insufficient evidence to make specific dietary recommendations to account for these
issues
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Shirreffs, S. M. and R. J. Maughan (2000). "Rehydration and recovery of fluid balance after exercise." Exerc
Sport Sci Rev 28(1): 27-32.
Restoration of fluid balance after exercise-induced hypohydration avoids the detrimental effects of a
body water deficit on subsequent exercise performance and physiological function. Key issues in restoring fluid
balance are consumption of a volume of fluid greater than that lost in sweat and replacement of electrolyte
losses, particularly sodium.
Evans, G. H., S. M. Shirreffs, et al. (2009). "Postexercise rehydration in man: the effects of carbohydrate content
and osmolality of drinks ingested ad libitum." Appl.Physiol Nutr.Metab 34(4): 785-793.
The effectiveness of different carbohydrate solutions in restoring fluid balance in situations of voluntary
fluid intake has not been examined previously. The effect of the carbohydrate content of drinks ingested after
exercise was examined in 6 males and 3 females previously dehydrated by 1.99 +/- 0.07% of body mass via
intermittent exercise in the heat. Beginning 30 min after the cessation of exercise, subjects drank ad libitum for a
period of 120 min. Drinks contained 31 mmol.L-1 Na+ as NaCl and either 0%, 2%, or 10% glucose with mean +/- SD
osmolalities of 74 +/- 1, 188 +/- 3, and 654 +/- 4 mosm.kg-1, respectively. Blood and urine samples were collected
before and after exercise, midway through rehydration, and throughout a 5 h recovery period. Total fluid intake
was not different among trials (0%: 2258 +/- 519 mL; 2%: 2539 +/- 436 mL; 10%: 2173 +/- 252 mL; p = 0.173).
Urine output was also not different among trials (p = 0.160). No differences among trials were observed in net
fluid balance or in the fraction of the ingested drink retained. In conclusion, in situations of voluntary fluid intake,
hypertonic carbohydrate-electrolyte solutions are as effective as hypotonic carbohydrate-electrolyte solutions at
restoring whole-body fluid balance
Burke, L. M. (1997). "Nutrition for post-exercise recovery." Aust.J Sci.Med Sport 29(1): 3-10.
Recovery after exercise poses an important challenge to the modern athlete. Important issues include
restoration of liver and muscle glycogen stores, and the replacement of fluid and electrolytes lost in sweat. Rapid
resynthesis of muscle glycogen stores is aided by the immediate intake of carbohydrate (I g.kg-1 BM each 2
hours), particularly of high glycemic index carbohydrate foods, leading to a total intake over 24 hours of 7-10 g.kg1 BM. Provided adequate carbohydrate is consumed it appears that the frequency of intake, the form (liquid
versus solid) and the presence of other macronutrients does not affect the rate of glycogen storage. Practical
considerations, such as the availability and appetite appeal of foods or drinks, and gastrointestinal comfort may
determine ideal carbohydrate choices and intake patterns. Rehydration requires a special fluid intake plan since
thirst and voluntary intake will not provide for full restoration of sweat losses in the acute phase (0-6 hr) of
recovery. Steps should be taken to ensure that a supply of palatable drinks is available after exercise. Sweetened
drinks are generally preferred and can contribute towards achieving carbohydrate intake goals. Replacement of
sodium lost in sweat is important in maximising the retention of ingested fluids. A sodium content of 50-90
mmol.L-1 may be necessary for optimal rehydration; however commercial sports drinks are formulated with a
more moderate sodium content (10-25 mmol.L-1). It may be necessary to consume 150% of fluid losses to allow
for complete fluid restoration. Caffeine and alcohol containing beverages are not ideal rehydration fluids since
they promote an increased rate of diuresis.
Protein
Rennie, M. J. and K. D. Tipton (2000). "Protein and amino acid metabolism during and after exercise and the
effects of nutrition." Annu Rev Nutr 20: 457-483.
Sustained dynamic exercise stimulates amino acid oxidation, chiefly of the branched-chain amino acids,
and ammonia production in proportion to exercise intensity; if the exercise is intense enough, there is a net loss of
muscle protein (as a result of decreased protein synthesis, increased breakdown, or both); some of the amino
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acids are oxidized as fuel, whereas the rest provide substrates for gluconeogenesis and possibly for acid-based
regulation. Protein balance is restored after exercise, but no hypertrophy occurs with habitual dynamic exercise.
Resistance exercise causes little change in amino acid oxidation but probably depresses protein synthesis and
elevates breakdown acutely. After exercise, protein synthesis rebounds for </=48 h, but breakdown remains
elevated, and net positive balance is achieved only if amino acid availability is increased. There is no evidence that
habitual exercise increases protein requirements; indeed protein metabolism may become more efficient as a
result of training.
450
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300
250
200
150
100
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0
I
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RE+AA+I
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Acid-Base
Remer, T. (2000). "Influence of diet on acid-base balance." Semin Dial 13(4): 221-226.
It is well established that diet and certain food components have a clear impact on acid-base balance. For
adults, the following factors are involved: 1) the chemical composition of foods (i.e., their content of protein,
chloride, phosphorus, sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium), 2) the different intestinal absorption rates of
the relevant nutrients, 3) the metabolic generation of sulfate from sulfur-containing amino acids, 4) the grade of
dissociation of phosphorus at the physiologic pH of 7.4, and 5) the ionic valence of calcium and magnesium. All
these factors allow us to estimate the potential renal acid load (PRAL) of any given food or diet. The PRAL
(calculated for a 24-hour period), together with a relatively constant daily amount of urinary excreted organic
acids (in healthy subjects proportional to body surface area or body weight), yields the daily net acid excretion.
This article provides an overview of the current concepts of diet influences on acid-base balance and also focuses
on the underlying physiologic and biochemical basis as well as on relevant clinical implications.
Massey, L. K. (2003). "Dietary Animal and Plant Protein and Human Bone Health: A Whole Foods Approach." J.
Nutr. 133(3): 862S-865.
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Urinary calcium excretion is strongly related to net renal acid excretion. The catabolism of dietary protein
generates ammonium ion and sulfates from sulfur-containing amino acids. Bone citrate and carbonate are
mobilized to neutralize these acids, so urinary calcium increases when dietary protein increases. Common plant
proteins such as soy, corn, wheat and rice have similar total S per g of protein as eggs, milk and muscle from meat,
poultry and fish. Therefore increasing intake of purified proteins from either animal or plant sources similarly
increases urinary calcium. The effects of a protein on urinary calcium and bone metabolism are modified by other
nutrients found in that protein food source. For example, the high amount of calcium in milk compensates for
urinary calcium losses generated by milk protein. Similarly, the high potassium levels of plant protein foods, such
as legumes and grains, will decrease urinary calcium. The hypocalciuric effect of the high phosphate associated
with the amino acids of meat at least partially offsets the hypercalciuric effect of the protein. Other food and
dietary constituents such as vitamin D, isoflavones in soy, caffeine and added salt also have effects on bone
health. Many of these other components are considered in the potential renal acid load of a food or diet, which
predicts its effect on urinary acid and thus calcium. "Excess" dietary protein from either animal or plant proteins
may be detrimental to bone health, but its effect will be modified by other nutrients in the food and total diet.
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Fats
Seaton, T. B., S. L. Welle, et al. (1986). "Thermic effect of medium-chain and long-chain triglycerides in man."
Am.J.Clin.Nutr. 44(5): 630-634.
The thermic effects of 400 kcal meals of medium-chain triglycerides (MCT) and long-chain triglycerides
(LCT) were compared in seven healthy men. Metabolic rate was measured before the meals and for 6 h after the
meals by indirect calorimetry. Mean postprandial oxygen consumption was 12% higher than basal oxygen
consumption after the MCT meal but was only 4% higher than the basal oxygen consumption after the LCT meal.
There was a 25-fold increase in plasma beta-hydroxybutyrate concentration and a slight increase in serum insulin
concentration after MCT ingestion but not after LCT ingestion. Plasma triglyceride concentrations increased 68%
after the LCT meal and did not change after the MCT meal. These data raise the possibility that long-term
substitution of MCT for LCT would produce weight loss if energy intake remained constant
Tarnopolsky, M., A. Zimmer, et al. (2007). "Creatine monohydrate and conjugated linoleic acid improve strength
and body composition following resistance exercise in older adults." PLoS.One. 2(10): e991.
Aging is associated with lower muscle mass and an increase in body fat. We examined whether creatine
monohydrate (CrM) and conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) could enhance strength gains and improve body
composition (i.e., increase fat-free mass (FFM); decrease body fat) following resistance exercise training in older
adults (>65 y). Men (N = 19) and women (N = 20) completed six months of resistance exercise training with CrM
(5g/d)+CLA (6g/d) or placebo with randomized, double blind, allocation. Outcomes included: strength and
muscular endurance, functional tasks, body composition (DEXA scan), blood tests (lipids, liver function, CK,
glucose, systemic inflammation markers (IL-6, C-reactive protein)), urinary markers of compliance
(creatine/creatinine), oxidative stress (8-OH-2dG, 8-isoP) and bone resorption (Nu-telopeptides). Exercise training
improved all measurements of functional capacity (P<0.05) and strength (P<0.001), with greater improvement for
the CrM+CLA group in most measurements of muscular endurance, isokinetic knee extension strength, FFM, and
lower fat mass (P<0.05). Plasma creatinine (P<0.05), but not creatinine clearance, increased for CrM+CLA, with no
changes in serum CK activity or liver function tests. Together, this data confirms that supervised resistance
exercise training is safe and effective for increasing strength in older adults and that a combination of CrM and
CLA can enhance some of the beneficial effects of training over a six-month period. Trial Registration.
ClinicalTrials.gov NCT00473902
Racine, N. M., A. C. Watras, et al. (2010). "Effect of conjugated linoleic acid on body fat accretion in overweight
or obese children." Am J Clin Nutr.
BACKGROUND: Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is a supplemental dietary fatty acid that decreases fat mass
accretion in young animals. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to determine CLA's efficacy with regard to
change in fat and body mass index (BMI) in children. DESIGN: We conducted a 7- +/- 0.5-mo randomized, doubleblind, placebo-controlled trial of CLA in 62 prepubertal children aged 6-10 y who were overweight or obese but
otherwise healthy. The subjects were randomly assigned to receive 3 g/d of 80% CLA (50:50 cis-9,trans-11 and
trans-10,cis-12 isomers) or placebo in chocolate milk. RESULTS: Fifty-three subjects completed the trial (n = 28 in
the CLA group, n = 25 in the placebo group). CLA attenuated the increase in BMI (0.5 +/- 0.8) compared with
placebo (1.1 +/- 1.1) (P = 0.05). The percentage change in body fat measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry
was smaller (P = 0.001) in the CLA group (-0.5 +/- 2.1%) than in the placebo group (1.3 +/- 1.8%). The change in
abdominal body fat as a percentage of total body weight was smaller (P = 0.02) in the CLA group (-0.09 +/- 0.9%)
than in the placebo group (0.43 +/- 0.6%). There were no significant changes in plasma glucose, insulin, or LDL
cholesterol between groups. Plasma HDL cholesterol decreased significantly more (P = 0.05) in the CLA group (-5.1
+/- 7.3 mg/dL) than in the placebo group (-0.7 +/- 8 mg/dL). Bone mineral accretion was lower (P = 0.04) in the
CLA group (0.05 +/- 0.03 kg) than in the placebo group (0.07 +/- 0.03 kg). Reported gastrointestinal symptoms did
not differ significantly between groups. CONCLUSIONS: CLA supplementation for 7 +/- 0.5 mo decreased body
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fatness in 6-10-y-old children who were overweight or obese but did not improve plasma lipids or glucose and
decreased HDL more than in the placebo group. Long-term investigation of the safety and efficacy of CLA
supplementation in children is recommended.
Hagi, A., M. Nakayama, et al. (2010). "Effects of the omega-6:omega-3 fatty acid ratio of fat emulsions on the
fatty acid composition in cell membranes and the anti-inflammatory action." JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 34(3):
263-270.
BACKGROUND: This study investigated the effects of parenterally administered fish oil (FO) on the fatty
acid composition in rats to determine the optimal omega-6:omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) ratio of fat
emulsions to achieve an anti-inflammatory effect. METHODS: Male Sprague-Dawley rats were infused a parenteral
nutrition (PN) solution containing fat emulsions with different omega-6:omega-3 PUFA ratios. The fatty acid
content of phospholipids in the membranes of splenocytes was analyzed by gas chromatography (experiment 1).
In addition, the amounts of leukotriene (LT) B(4) and LTB(5) released from peritoneal polymorphonuclear
leukocytes (PMNs) were measured by high-performance liquid chromatography (experiment 2). RESULTS: In
experiment 1, after infusion of the fat emulsion containing FO, the omega-3 PUFA content in cell membranes rose
to 70% of the peak value on day 1 and nearly reached a plateau on day 3. The highest ratio of eicosapentaenoic
acid (EPA) to arachidonic acid (AA) was achieved by administering a PN solution with the smallest omega6:omega-3 PUFA ratio. In experiment 2, a larger amount of LTB(5) was released from Ca-ionophore-stimulated
PMNs taken from rats given a larger quantity of FO. The ratio of LTB(5):LTB(4) released from PMNs correlated
positively with the EPA:AA ratio in the membranous phospholipid and in serum. CONCLUSIONS: The omega-3
PUFAs were readily incorporated into the cell membrane within 3 days of infusion with the fat emulsion. The
EPA:AA ratio in membranous phospholipid in PMNs was positively correlated with the LTB(5):LTB(4) production
ratio and was a good indicator of anti-inflammatory effects.
Hibbeln, J. R., J. C. Umhau, et al. (1997). "Do plasma polyunsaturates predict hostility and depression?" World
Rev Nutr Diet 82: 175-186.
Simopoulos, A. P. (1991). "Omega-3 fatty acids in health and disease and in growth and development."
Am.J.Clin.Nutr. 54(3): 438-463.
Several sources of information suggest that man evolved on a diet with a ratio of omega 6 to omega 3
fatty acids of approximately 1 whereas today this ratio is approximately 10:1 to 20-25:1, indicating that Western
diets are deficient in omega 3 fatty acids compared with the diet on which humans evolved and their genetic
patterns were established. Omega-3 fatty acids increase bleeding time; decrease platelet aggregation, blood
viscosity, and fibrinogen; and increase erythrocyte deformability, thus decreasing the tendency to thrombus
formation. In no clinical trial, including coronary artery graft surgery, has there been any evidence of increased
blood loss due to ingestion of omega 3 fatty acids. Many studies show that the effects of omega 3 fatty acids on
serum lipids depend on the type of patient and whether the amount of saturated fatty acids in the diet is held
constant. In patients with hyperlipidemia, omega 3 fatty acids decrease low-density-lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol if
the saturated fatty acid content is decreased, otherwise there is a slight increase, but at high doses (32 g) they
lower LDL cholesterol; furthermore, they consistently lower serum triglycerides in normal subjects and in patients
with hypertriglyceridemia whereas the effect on high-density lipoprotein (HDL) varies from no effect to slight
increases. The discrepancies between animal and human studies most likely are due to differences between
animal and human metabolism. In clinical trials eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in
the form of fish oils along with antirheumatic drugs improve joint pain in patients with rheumatoid arthritis; have
a beneficial effect in patients with ulcerative colitis; and in combination with drugs, improve the skin lesions,
lower the hyperlipidemia from etretinates, and decrease the toxicity of cyclosporin in patients with psoriasis. In
various animal models omega 3 fatty acids decrease the number and size of tumors and increase the time elapsed
before appearance of tumors. Studies with nonhuman primates and human newborns indicate that DHA is
essential for the normal functional development of the retina and brain, particularly in premature infants. Because
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omega 3 fatty acids are essential in growth and development throughout the life cycle, they should be included in
the diets of all humans. Omega-3 and omega 6 fatty acids are not interconvertible in the human body and are
important components of practically all cell membranes. Whereas cellular proteins are genetically determined,
the polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) composition of cell membranes is to a great extent dependent on the
dietary intake.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)
Carbs
Anti-oxidants
Price, J. A., C. G. Sanny, et al. (2006). "Application of manual assessment of oxygen radical absorbent capacity
(ORAC) for use in high throughput assay of "total" antioxidant activity of drugs and natural products." J
Pharmacol Toxicol Methods 54(1): 56-61.
INTRODUCTION: Antioxidants are of particular interest in a spectrum of diseases, and thus are an active
area of drug discovery and design. It is important to make considered choices as to which assay chemistry will best
serve for particular investigations. We examined the manual oxygen radical absorbent capacity (ORAC) assay for
"total" antioxidant activity, including a direct comparison to an alternative technique, the AOP-490 assay, using a
panel of extracts from 12 phylogenetically unrelated algae. METHODS: The AOP-490 assay was done per
manufacturer's protocol. The ORAC assay was done by hand, in 96-well plates, not by machine as had been
previously published. Our ORAC calculations were done using an in-experiment antioxidant standard curve.
Results were reported as equivalents of the antioxidant Trolox, which was used as a standard. RESULTS: With the
AOP-490 kit (from Oxis Research) widespread activity was found, but not in all samples. When the ORAC method
was used to assay aliquots of the same extracts there was significant activity detected in all samples, and the rank
order of activity by the two methods was not identical. The data showed the wide occurrence of antioxidants in
algae. The standard curve with the manual ORAC assay was linear in the range tested (0-100 mM Trolox) and had
excellent reproducibility. DISCUSSION: The importance of the beneficial effects of antioxidants is currently an area
of active interest for drug development, and thus it is of great value to have an assay that is robust and
approximates "total" antioxidant activity in a high throughput format. The ORAC (oxygen radical absorbent
capacity) method was adapted to microplates and an eight-channel pipette and was more effective in detecting
"total" antioxidant activity than the AOP-490 assay. These results might vary with other types of samples, and
would depend on the active agents measured, but do suggest the practical value of the ORAC assay for any
laboratory not ready for robotics but using manual 96-well format assays, and the utility of the ORAC assay for
evaluating algal, and probably other samples as well.
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TOP ANTIOXIDANT FOODS
ORAC* UNITS PER
100 GRAMS
Dark Chocolate
Prunes
Raisins
Blueberries
Blackberries
Kale
Strawberries
Spinach
Raspberries
Brussels Sprouts
Plums
Alfalfa Sprouts
Broccoli Florets
Oranges
Grapes, red
Red Bell Pepper
Cherries
Onion
Corn
Eggplant
13,120
5,770
2,830
2,400
2,036
1,770
1,540
1,260
1,220
980
949
930
890
750
739
710
670
450
400
390
Recovery
Levenhagen, D. K., C. Carr, et al. (2002). "Postexercise protein intake enhances whole-body and leg protein
accretion in humans." Med.Sci.Sports Exerc. 34(5): 828-837.
PURPOSE: Exercise increases the use of amino acids for glucose production and stimulates the oxidation
of amino acids and other substrates to provide ATP for muscular contraction, and thus the availability of amino
acids and energy for postexercise muscle protein synthesis may be limiting. The purpose of this study was to
determine the potential of postexercise nutrient intake to enhance the recovery of whole-body and skeletal
muscle protein homeostasis in humans. METHODS: Primed-continuous infusions of L-[1-13C]leucine and L-[ring2H5]phenylalanine were initiated in the antecubital vein and blood was sampled from a femoral vein and a heated
(arterialized) hand vein. Each study consisted of a 30-min basal, a 60-min exercise (bicycle at 60% VO2max), and a
180-min recovery period. Five men and five women were studied three times with an oral supplement
administered immediately following exercise in random order: NO = 0, 0, 0; SUPP = 0, 8, 3; or SUPP+PRO = 10, 8, 3
g of protein, carbohydrate, and lipid, respectively. RESULTS: Compared to NO, SUPP did not alter leg or wholebody protein homeostasis during the recovery period. In contrast, SUPP+PRO increased plasma essential amino
acids 33%, leg fractional extraction of phenylalanine 4-fold, leg uptake of glucose 3.5-fold, and leg and whole-body
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protein synthesis 6-fold and 15%, respectively. Whereas postexercise intake of either NO or SUPP resulted in a net
leg release of essential amino acids and net loss of whole-body and leg protein, SUPP+PRO resulted in a net leg
uptake of essential amino acids and net whole-body and leg protein gain. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest
that the availability of amino acids is more important than the availability of energy for postexercise repair and
synthesis of muscle proteins
Toxins
Howdeshell, K. L., A. K. Hotchkiss, et al. (1999). "Environmental toxins: Exposure to bisphenol A advances
puberty." Nature 401(6755): 763-764.
Plastics and pesticides are examples of products that contain oestrogenic endocrine-disrupting chemicals,
or EEDCs, which can interfere with mammalian development by mimicking the action of the sex hormone
oestradiol1. For instance, the exposure of developing rodents to high doses of EEDCs advances puberty and alters
their reproductive function2. Low environmental doses of EEDCs may also affect development in humans3. Effects
have become apparent in humans over the past half century that are consistent with those seen in animals after
exposure to high doses of EEDCs, such as an increase in genital abnormality in boys4 and earlier sexual maturation
in girls5. Here we show that exposing female mouse fetuses to an EEDC at a dose that is within the range typical of
the environmental exposure of humans alters the postnatal growth rate and brings on early puberty in these mice.
Miquel Porta a b, (2006). “Persistent organic pollutants and the burden of diabetes” The Lancet, Volume 368,
Issue 9535, Pages 558 – 559.
Studies from the USA have drawn attention to the possibility that persistent organic pollutants might contribute
to cause diabetes. Dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls, dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE, the main
degradation product of the pesticide dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane [DDT ] ), trans-nonachlor,
hexachlorobenzene, and the hexachlorociclohexanes (including lindane) are some of the persistent organic
pollutants most commonly found in human beings. Lipophilic and highly resistant ... “Virtually all of the risk of
diabetes conferred by obesity is attributable to persistent organic pollutants, and that obesity is only a vehicle
for such chemicals. This possibility is shocking”.
Endurance
Definition
To last, continue, or remain. In exercise, the ability to sustain exertion (repeated bouts /
continuous) for an extended period. This exertion may make demands of aerobic or annaerobic
ennergy stytems, or require sustained power or force generation.
Brain - Motivation
•
Athletes run faster in competition compared to when unobserved and this has to be
controlled for when desigining academic studies.
•
A common practise in sprinting is to estimate the time possible in compitition by sprinting in
practise from a rolling start.
•
The following paper shows that motivational circuitry in the brain is responible for some of
the benefits seen from carbohydrate supplementation in short-duration maximal exercise.
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Exercise bouts too short to compromise glycogen reserves are often aided by carb intake.
Some studies have also shown the rate of carb absorption during exercise to be too low to
make such an imediate impact on performance. This study showed that purely swilling
carbohydrate in the mouth could stimulate areas of the brain untouched by artifical
sweetner. The areas stimulated, such as the cingulate cortex and areas within the striatum,
are believed to house dopaminergic pathways that link food to reward and motivation
Studies:
Chambers, E. S., M. W. Bridge, et al. (2009). "Carbohydrate sensing in the human mouth: effects on exercise
performance and brain activity." J Physiol 587(Pt 8): 1779-1794.
Exercise studies have suggested that the presence of carbohydrate in the human mouth activates regions of the
brain that can enhance exercise performance but direct evidence of such a mechanism is limited. The first aim of
the present study was to observe how rinsing the mouth with solutions containing glucose and maltodextrin,
disguised with artificial sweetener, would affect exercise performance. The second aim was to use functional
magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to identify the brain regions activated by these substances. In Study 1A, eight
endurance-trained cyclists (VO2max 60.8 +/- 4.1 ml kg(-1) min(-1)) completed a cycle time trial (total work = 914
+/- 29 kJ) significantly faster when rinsing their mouths with a 6.4% glucose solution compared with a placebo
containing saccharin (60.4 +/- 3.7 and 61.6 +/- 3.8 min, respectively, P = 0.007). The corresponding fMRI study
(Study 1B) revealed that oral exposure to glucose activated reward-related brain regions, including the anterior
cingulate cortex and striatum, which were unresponsive to saccharin. In Study 2A, eight endurance-trained cyclists
(VO2max 57.8 +/- 3.2 ml kg(-1) min(-1)) tested the effect of rinsing with a 6.4% maltodextrin solution on exercise
performance, showing it to significantly reduce the time to complete the cycle time trial (total work = 837 +/- 68
kJ) compared to an artificially sweetened placebo (62.6 +/- 4.7 and 64.6 +/- 4.9 min, respectively, P = 0.012). The
second neuroimaging study (Study 2B) compared the cortical response to oral maltodextrin and glucose, revealing
a similar pattern of brain activation in response to the two carbohydrate solutions, including areas of the
insula/frontal operculum, orbitofrontal cortex and striatum. The results suggest that the improvement in exercise
performance that is observed when carbohydrate is present in the mouth may be due to the activation of brain
regions believed to be involved in reward and motor control. The findings also suggest that there may be a class of
so far unidentified oral receptors that respond to carbohydrate independently of those for sweetness.
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Brain - Neurotransmitters and Adrenal Fatigue
•
•
“Parasympathetic” type of overtraining also referred to as “Adrenal Fatigue”.
Decreased catecholamine levels or sensitivity
• Decreased density of b-receptors at the neuromuscular junction Decrease in
submaximal heart-rate despit compormised performance
Dietary nutritional strategies and supplementation protocols
• Supporting neurotransmitter/endocrine metabolism by ensuring adequate levels of dietary
precursors
― Tyrosine (has treated overtraining and hypoxia)
― Adrenal Cortex
• Supporting neurotransmitter metabolism indirectly
― B Vitamins
―
Vitamin C
Studies:
Lehmann, M., C. Foster, et al. (1998). "Autonomic imbalance hypothesis and overtraining syndrome." Med Sci
Sports Exerc 30(7): 1140-1145.
PURPOSE: The parasympathetic, Addison type, overtraining syndrome represents the dominant modern
type of this syndrome. Beside additional mechanisms, an autonomic or neuroendocrine imbalance is hypothesized
as underlying. METHODS/RESULTS: Several findings support this thesis. During heavy endurance training or
overreaching periods, the majority of findings give evidence of a reduced adrenal responsiveness to ACTH. This is
compensated by an increased pituitary ACTH release. In an early stage of the overtraining syndrome, despite
increased pituitary ACTH release, the decreased adrenal responsiveness is no longer compensated. The cortisol
response decreases. In an advanced stage of overtraining syndrome, the pituitary ACTH release also decreases. In
this stage, there is additionally evidence for decreased intrinsic sympathetic activity and sensitivity of target
organs to catecholamines. This is indicated by decreased catecholamine excretion during night rest, decreased
beta-adrenoreceptor density, decreased beta-adrenoreceptor-mediated responses, and increased resting plasma
norepinephrine levels and responses to exercise. However, this complete pattern is only observed subsequent to
high-volume endurance overtraining at high caloric demands. CONCLUSION: The described functional alterations
of pituitary-adrenal axis and sympathetic system can explain persistent performance incompetence in affected
athletes.
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Uusitalo, A. L., P. Huttunen, et al. (1998). "Hormonal responses to endurance training and overtraining in female
athletes." Clin J Sport Med 8(3): 178-186.
OBJECTIVE: To examine different hormonal responses to heavy endurance training and overtraining in
female athletes. DESIGN: Submaximal and maximal treadmill tests, self-report mood measures, and stress
hormone analyses were repeated at baseline, after 4 weeks and at the end of 6 to 9 weeks of experimental
intensive training and after 4 to 6 weeks of recovery. SUBJECTS: Fifteen healthy female endurance athletes
increased their intensive training volume by 130% and base training volume by 100% (ETG, n = 9) or served as
controls (CG, n = 6). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), mood dynamics, blood
catecholamines, cortisol and testosterone at rest and after submaximal and maximal exercise, and nocturnal urine
catecholamines. RESULTS: Five females from the ETG demonstrated an over-training state (OA subgroup) at the
end of the training period. Their VO2max decreased (mean +/- SEM) from 53.0 +/- 2.2 ml.kg-1.min-1 (range, 46.859.2) to 50.2 +/- 2.3 ml.kg-1.min-1 (range, 43.8-56.6) (p < 0.01). Maximal treadmill performance expressed as
oxygen demand decreased (mean +/- SEM) from 56.0 +/- 1.6 ml.kg-1.min-1 (range, 51.5-60.5) to 52.2 +/- 1.1 ml
kg-1.min-1 (range, 49.1-55.3) (p < 0.01). Maximal heart rate also decreased (mean +/- SEM) from 190 +/- 1 bpm
(range, 185-197) to 186 +/- 2 bpm (range, 184-193) (p < 0.05), and the athletes experienced mood disturbances.
Plasma adrenaline levels at maximal and noradrenaline at submaximal work rate decreased during the last 2 to 5
training weeks (p < 0.05), and serum cortisol levels at maximal work rate decreased during the first 4 training
weeks (p < 0.05) in the ETG. Plasma adrenaline at maximal work rate decreased during the first 4 training weeks (p
< 0.05) in the OA subgroup. There were no changes in the CG. Individual hormonal response types to heavy
training and overtraining were found. CONCLUSIONS: Hormone responses to exercise load are superior in
indicating heavy training-induced stress when compared with resting hormone levels. These responses indicated
decreased sympathoadrenal and/or adrenocortical activity (or exhaustion of the adrenal gland or the central
nervous system). Individual hormonal profiles are needed to follow up training effects. Marked individual
differences were found in training- and overtraining-induced hormonal changes.
Hooper, S. L., L. T. MacKinnon, et al. (1993). "Hormonal responses of elite swimmers to overtraining." Med Sci
Sports Exerc 25(6): 741-747.
Fourteen elite swimmers had measurements of stress hormones taken at five points during a 6-month
season: early-, mid- and late-season, during tapering for National Trials, and 1-3 d after the Trials. Training details
and subjective ratings of fatigue were recorded daily in log books. Plasma norepinephrine and epinephrine
concentrations were significantly correlated with swim training volume (r = 0.37 and 0.33, respectively, P < 0.05
for each). No significant differences were seen in norepinephrine or cortisol concentrations at the five sampling
times. Epinephrine levels were significantly lower (P < 0.05) after competition compared with values early in the
season and shortly before competition. Symptoms of the overtraining syndrome were identified in three of the
swimmers, based on performance decrements and high, prolonged levels of fatigue. In these three swimmers,
norepinephrine levels tended to be higher than those of the other swimmers from mid-season onward and were
significantly higher (P < 0.01) during tapering. If these findings can be confirmed in larger numbers and different
types of athletes, norepinephrine level may provide a useful marker of the overtraining syndrome.
Banderet, L. E. and H. R. Lieberman (1989). "Treatment with tyrosine, a neurotransmitter precursor, reduces
environmental stress in humans." Brain Res Bull 22(4): 759-762.
Acutely stressful situations can disrupt behavior and deplete brain norepinephrine and dopamine,
catecholaminergic neurotransmitters. In animals, administration of tyrosine, a food constituent and precursor of
the catecholamines, reduces these behavioral and neurochemical deficits. Using a double-blind, placebocontrolled crossover design we investigated whether tyrosine (100 mg/kg) would protect humans from some of
the adverse consequences of a 4.5 hour exposure to cold and hypoxia. Tyrosine significantly decreased symptoms,
adverse moods, and performance impairments in subjects who exhibited average or greater responses to these
environmental conditions. These results suggest that tyrosine should be evaluated in a variety of acutely stressful
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situations.
Cardiopulmonary
Oxygen Transport Essential for Aerobic Endurance
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Iron - Heamoglobin (Hb)/Oxygen transport essential for aerobic endurance
-Supplementation seen to improve performance in deficient athletes
Non Deficient elite athlete we’ve worked with shown significant performance improvements
from addition of dietary iron
A 0.3 g/dL increase in Hb can equate to ≈ 1% improvement in VO2max.
Elite runner (with EIS Physiologist Barry Fudge)
[Hb] from14 to 15.2 g/dL
VO2max from 4.32 to 4.49 L/min
≈ 4.0%!
Studies:
Hinton, P. S., C. Giordano, et al. (2000). "Iron supplementation improves endurance after training in iron-depleted,
nonanemic women." J Appl Physiol 88(3): 1103-1111.
Our objective was to investigate the effects of iron depletion on adaptation to aerobic exercise, assessed
by time to complete a 15-km cycle ergometer test. Forty-two iron-depleted (serum ferritin <16 microg/l),
nonanemic (Hb >12 g/dl) women (18-33 yr old) received 100 mg of ferrous sulfate (S) or placebo (P) per day for 6
wk in a randomized, double-blind trial. Subjects trained for 30 min/day, 5 days/wk at 75-85% of maximum heart
rate for the final 4 wk of the study. There were no group differences in baseline iron status or in 15-km time. Iron
supplementation increased serum ferritin and decreased transferrin receptors in the S compared with the P
group. The S and P groups decreased 15-km time and respiratory exchange ratio and increased work rate during
the 15-km time trial after training. The decrease in 15-km time was greater in the S than in the P group (P = 0.04)
and could be partially attributed to increases in serum ferritin and Hb. These results indicate that iron deficiency
without anemia impairs favorable adaptation to aerobic exercise.
Circulation
•
•
EFAs Impact on RBC properties
RBC deformability increases following Omega-3 supplementation, which may have benefits
for endurance
Studies:
Cartwright, I. J., A. G. Pockley, et al. (1985). "The effects of dietary [omega]-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on
erythrocyte membrane phospholipids, erythrocyte deformability and blood viscosity in healthy volunteers."
Atherosclerosis 55(3): 267-281.
Ho, M., C. Maple, et al. (1999). "The beneficial effects of omega-3 and omega-6 essential fatty acid
supplementation on red blood cell rheology." Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids 61(1): 13-17.
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Twenty healthy, non-smoking subjects were enrolled into a study to investigate the effects of dietary
supplementation with essential fatty acid (EFAs) on red blood cell rheology. Ten subjects were given 3 months
dietary supplementation with long chain polyunsaturated EFAs containing omega-3 and omega-6 EFAs while 10
others were given placebo (sunflower oil). Venous sampling was performed at 0 and 12 weeks and red blood cell
(RBC) aggregation and deformability measured by a filtration system. The results showed a reduction in RBC
aggregation in the group given omega-3 and omega-6 EFAs but not in the placebo group. This may be related to
changes in the RBC membrane and surface receptor characteristics. Such EFAs may be useful in Raynaud's
phenomenon.
B12
•
•
•
Needed for “folate system” – methyl donation needed for gene expression and... RBC
FORMATION!
Deficient populations have improved exercise capacity on supplementation
Athletes show superior B-vitamin status
Studies:
Herrmann, M., R. Obeid, et al. (2005). "Altered vitamin B12 status in recreational endurance athletes." Int J Sport
Nutr Exerc Metab 15(4): 433-441.
This study aimed to compare the vitamin B(12)and folate status of recreational endurance athletes and
inactive controls by modern biomarkers. In 72 athletes (38 +/- 7 y) and 46 inactive controls (38 +/- 9 y) serum
levels of vitamin B(2), methylmalonic acid (MMA), holotranscobalamin II (holoTC), folate, and homocysteine (Hcy)
were measured. Vitamin B(12)and folate levels of both groups were comparable, but athletes had higher median
(25.-75. percentile) MMA [242 (196 to 324) versus 175 (141 to 266) nmol/L] and holoTC concentrations [67 (52 to
93) versus 55 (45 to 70) pmol/L] than controls. Hcy was slightly lower in athletes [9.2 (7.2 to 12.6) versus 10.8 (8.9
to 12.9) nmol/L]. In controls, we found the following correlations: vitamin B(12)and MMA (r = -0.38), vitamin
B(12)and holoTC (r = 0.51), MMA and holoTC (r = -0.36). In athletes, MMA did not correlate with vitamin B(12)and
holoTC. Our data suggests an altered vitamin B(12)metabolism in recreational athletes that needs further
investigation.
Seshadri, S., K. Hirode, et al. (1982). "Behavioural responses of young anaemic Indian children to iron-folic acid
supplements." Br J Nutr 48(2): 233-240.
Behavioural responses of young anaemic Indian children to iron-folic acid supplements were assessed in two
separate studies using the Indian adaptation of Wechsler's (1967) intelligence scale for children (WISC). 2. The first
study was an exploratory study in which the cognitive behaviour of 5-8-year-old children of both sexes was
assessed before and after supplementation with 20 mg elemental Fe and 0.1 mg folic acid given daily for a period
of 60 d. 3. The supplemented children showed a significant improvement in haemoglobin (Hb) as well as the WISC
scores while the control children who did not receive any supplements failed to show an improvement either in
Hb or in the WISC scores. However, within the supplemented group when the initially-anaemic children were
compared with the initially-non-anaemic ones, only the 7-year-old anaemic children performed significantly poor
in the tests than the non-anaemic group of the same age. The study raised the possibility that in addition to
increasing the blood Hb levels, Fe-folic acid supplements may have additional benefits in improving the cognitive
performance of children. 4. In the second study, cognitive behaviour of fourteen matched pairs of anaemic
children in the age-range of 5-6 years was assessed before and after supplementation with 40 mg Fe and 0.2 mg
folic acid given daily in two divided doses or sugar placebos for a period of 60 d. The tester did not know the
groups to which each child belonged. 5. The supplemented children showed a significant improvement in Hb as
well as in the verbal and performance IQ of WISC. The control children showed no improvement in Hb but their
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verbal IQ improved significantly. However, there was no significant improvement in their performance IQ. 6. The
results indicated that Fe-folic acid supplements to anaemic children not only raised Hb levels but also improved
intelligence test results, particularly in the performance section.
Chlorophyll Supplementation
•
Chrolophyll’s similarity to Haemoglobin seems to induce synthesis by the body!
-
For study details see included review by Reynolds
Borisenko, A. N. and A. D. Safonova (1965). "[The hemopoietic effect of sodium chlorophylline]." Vrach
Delo 9: 44-46.
Circulation & Vasodilation
•
Adaptation occurs when the muscle recovers to surpass its initial abilities
(supercompensation), supported by nutrient provision and waste removal
•
Blood-flow is increased by Nitric Oxide (NO) to causing vasodilation.
•
Precursors of NO an interesting area of study…
•
supplementation with inorganic nitrate in the form of beetroot juice may aid
adaptation/performance by:
–
Enhancing NO production
–
Increasing bloodflow, fuel-delivery and waste removal from exercising muscle
•
Study observed increased time to exhaustion and decreased systolic blood-pressure during
exercise
•
Natural Blood thinning factors; salicylates
–
Work similarly to aspirin (derived from salicylic acid)
–
blocks the formation of thromboxane A2 in platelets, producing an inhibitory effect
on platelet aggregation
Bailey, S. J., P. Winyard, et al. (2009). "Dietary nitrate supplementation reduces the O2 cost of low-intensity
exercise and enhances tolerance to high-intensity exercise in humans." J Appl Physiol 107(4): 1144-1155.
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Pharmacological sodium nitrate supplementation has been reported to reduce the O2 cost of
submaximal exercise in humans. In this study, we hypothesized that dietary supplementation with
inorganic nitrate in the form of beetroot juice (BR) would reduce the O2 cost of submaximal exercise and
enhance the tolerance to high-intensity exercise. In a double-blind, placebo (PL)-controlled, crossover
study, eight men (aged 19-38 yr) consumed 500 ml/day of either BR (containing 11.2 +/- 0.6 mM of
nitrate) or blackcurrant cordial (as a PL, with negligible nitrate content) for 6 consecutive days and
completed a series of "step" moderate-intensity and severe-intensity exercise tests on the last 3 days. On
days 4-6, plasma nitrite concentration was significantly greater following dietary nitrate supplementation
compared with PL (BR: 273 +/- 44 vs. PL: 140 +/- 50 nM; P < 0.05), and systolic blood pressure was
significantly reduced (BR: 124 +/- 2 vs. PL: 132 +/- 5 mmHg; P < 0.01). During moderate exercise, nitrate
supplementation reduced muscle fractional O2 extraction (as estimated using near-infrared
spectroscopy). The gain of the increase in pulmonary O2 uptake following the onset of moderate exercise
was reduced by 19% in the BR condition (BR: 8.6 +/- 0.7 vs. PL: 10.8 +/- 1.6 ml.min(-1).W(-1); P < 0.05).
During severe exercise, the O2 uptake slow component was reduced (BR: 0.57 +/- 0.20 vs. PL: 0.74 +/0.24 l/min; P < 0.05), and the time-to-exhaustion was extended (BR: 675 +/- 203 vs. PL: 583 +/- 145 s; P <
0.05). The reduced O2 cost of exercise following increased dietary nitrate intake has important
implications for our understanding of the factors that regulate mitochondrial respiration and muscle
contractile energetics in humans.
Mitochondria
•
•
•
Mitochondria are the power plants of the cell
Mitochondrial density associated with aerobic and anaerobic power
Co Q 10 involved in electron transport while supplementation has been seen to increase
endurance and anti-oxidant capacity
Studies:
Cooke, M., M. Iosia, et al. (2008). "Effects of acute and 14-day coenzyme Q10 supplementation on exercise
performance in both trained and untrained individuals." J Int.Soc.Sports Nutr. 5: 8.
BACKGROUND: To determine whether acute (single dose) and/or chronic (14-days) supplementation of
CoQ10 will improve anaerobic and/or aerobic exercise performance by increasing plasma and muscle CoQ10
concentrations within trained and untrained individuals. METHODS: Twenty-two aerobically trained and nineteen
untrained male and female subjects (26.1 +/- 7.6 yrs, 172 +/- 8.7 cm, 73.5 +/- 17 kg, and 21.2 +/- 7.0%) were
randomized to ingest in a double-blind manner either 100 mg of a dextrose placebo (CON) or a fast-melt CoQ10
supplement (CoQ10) twice a day for 14-days. On the first day of supplementation, subjects donated fasting blood
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samples and a muscle biopsy. Subjects were then given 200 mg of the placebo or the CoQ10 supplement. Sixty
minutes following supplement ingestion, subjects completed an isokinetic knee extension endurance test, a 30second wingate anaerobic capacity test, and a maximal cardiopulmonary graded exercise test interspersed with
30-minutes of recovery. Additional blood samples were taken immediately following each exercise test and a
second muscle biopsy sample was taken following the final exercise test. Subjects consumed twice daily (morning
and night), 100 mg of either supplement for a period of 14-days, and then returned to the lab to complete the
same battery of tests. Data was analyzed using repeated measures ANOVA with an alpha of 0.05. RESULTS: Plasma
CoQ10 levels were significantly increased following 2 weeks of CoQ10 supplementation (p < 0.001); while a trend
for higher muscle CoQ10 levels was observed after acute CoQ10 ingestion (p = 0.098). A trend for lower serum
superoxide dismutase (SOD) was observed following acute supplementation with CoQ10 (p = 0.06), whereas
serum malondialdehyde (MDA) tended to be significantly higher (p < 0.05). Following acute ingestion of CoQ10,
plasma CoQ10 levels were significantly correlated to muscle CoQ10 levels; maximal oxygen consumption; and
treadmill time to exhaustion. A trend for increased time to exhaustion was observed following 2 weeks of CoQ10
supplementation (p = 0.06). CONCLUSION: Acute supplementation with CoQ10 resulted in higher muscle CoQ10
concentration, lower serum SOD oxidative stress, and higher MDA levels during and following exercise. Chronic
CoQ10 supplementation increased plasma CoQ10 concentrations and tended to increase time to exhaustion.
Results indicate that acute and chronic supplementation of CoQ10 may affect acute and/or chronic responses to
various types of exercise
Carnitine
•
Acetyl-L-carnitine is a derivative of carnitine and is a precursor to the molecule acetyl
coenzyme A, important in the citric acid cycle
•
N-acetyl-carnitine also assists in the transportation of long-chain fatty acids into the
mitochondria for beta-oxidation
•
Beta-oxidation is the process in which fatty acids are broken down in mitochondria to
generate Acetyl-CoA, the entry molecule for the citric acid cycle
•
The carnitines also have significant antioxidant activity, providing a protective effect against
lipid peroxidation and oxidative stress.
•
Lipoic acid is a potent antioxidant and has the ability to protect and repair age-induced
mitochondrial DNA damage, thereby up-regulating mitochondrial function and improving
energy production
•
Animal studies have shown that supplementation with lipoic acid has dramatic effects on
improving age-related declines in mitochondrial function
•
Lipoic acid reverses the decline in oxygen consumption, increases mitochondrial membrane
potential, decreases levels of ROS and markers of lipid peroxidation, increases ambulatory
activity and improves the age-associated decline of memory, increases the levels of
antioxidants, and restores the activity of key enzymes
•
Interestingly, numerous studies have shown that acetyl-L-carnitine in combination with lipoic
acid increases cellular metabolism and lowers oxidative stress better than either compound
alone
Studies:
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Liu, J. (2008). "The effects and mechanisms of mitochondrial nutrient alpha-lipoic acid on improving ageassociated mitochondrial and cognitive dysfunction: an overview." Neurochem Res 33(1): 194-203.
We have identified a group of nutrients that can directly or indirectly protect mitochondria from
oxidative damage and improve mitochondrial function and named them "mitochondrial nutrients". The direct
protection includes preventing the generation of oxidants, scavenging free radicals or inhibiting oxidant reactivity,
and elevating cofactors of defective mitochondrial enzymes with increased Michaelis-Menten constant to
stimulate enzyme activity, and also protect enzymes from further oxidation, and the indirect protection includes
repairing oxidative damage by enhancing antioxidant defense systems either through activation of phase 2
enzymes or through increase in mitochondrial biogenesis. In this review, we take alpha-lipoic acid (LA) as an
example of mitochondrial nutrients by summarizing the protective effects and possible mechanisms of LA and its
derivatives on age-associated cognitive and mitochondrial dysfunction of the brain. LA and its derivatives improve
the age-associated decline of memory, improve mitochondrial structure and function, inhibit the age-associated
increase of oxidative damage, elevate the levels of antioxidants, and restore the activity of key enzymes. In
addition, co-administration of LA with other mitochondrial nutrients, such as acetyl-L: -carnitine and coenzyme
Q10, appears more effective in improving cognitive dysfunction and reducing oxidative mitochondrial dysfunction.
Therefore, administrating mitochondrial nutrients, such as LA and its derivatives in combination with other
mitochondrial nutrients to aged people and patients suffering from neurodegenerative diseases, may be an
effective strategy for improving mitochondrial and cognitive dysfunction.
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Muscle
• Energy Provision and The Krebs Cycle
•
•
Energy provided from a combination of aerobic, anaerobic and phosphocreatine
systems; the relative contributions of each dependon intensity.
Never a single system, always a combination. In an intermittent sport like rugby, all
types of endurance will be alled upon!
–
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Protein
•
•
•
•
Endurance athletes frequently underestimate the importance of protein;
Many roles
– Fuel (oxidation & gluconeogenesis)
– Mitochondrial Biogenesis
– Immune/sytemic factors
Current Recommendations similar to strength athletes at 1.2-1.8g/Kg
Study below showed an increase in lean tissue mass in endruance athletes resulting from 2.1g
vs 1.2g protein per day.
Studies:
Burke, D. G., P. D. Chilibeck, et al. (2001). "The effect of whey protein supplementation with and without creatine
monohydrate combined with resistance training on lean tissue mass and muscle strength." Int J Sport Nutr Exerc
Metab 11(3): 349-364.
Our purpose was to assess muscular adaptations during 6 weeks of resistance training in 36 males
randomly assigned to supplementation with whey protein (W; 1.2 g/kg/day), whey protein and creatine
monohydrate (WC; 0.1 g/kg/day), or placebo (P; 1.2 g/kg/day maltodextrin). Measures included lean tissue mass
by dual energy x-ray absorptiometry, bench press and squat strength (1-repetition maximum), and knee
extension/flexion peak torque. Lean tissue mass increased to a greater extent with training in WC compared to
the other groups, and in the W compared to the P group (p < .05). Bench press strength increased to a greater
extent for WC compared to W and P (p < .05). Knee extension peak torque increased with training for WC and W
(p < .05), but not for P. All other measures increased to a similar extent across groups. Continued training without
supplementation for an additional 6 weeks resulted in maintenance of strength and lean tissue mass in all groups.
Males that supplemented with whey protein while resistance training demonstrated greater improvement in knee
extension peak torque and lean tissue mass than males engaged in training alone. Males that supplemented with
a combination of whey protein and creatine had greater increases in lean tissue mass and bench press than those
who supplemented with only whey protein or placebo. However, not all strength measures were improved with
supplementation, since subjects who supplemented with creatine and/or whey protein had similar increases in
squat strength and knee flexion peak torque compared to subjects who received placebo.
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Carbs
•
•
•
•
•
Greatest aerobic gains achieved with high intensity exercise, reliant on lactate
Low GI CHO can be most beneficial close to endurance exercise as HGI can impair fat
oxidation and cause CHO depletion faster
HGI best for glycogen storage, but impact on endurance may impair endurance-performance,
making HGI most suitable for recovery
Intermittent-sprint-sports, or sprints in warm up may counter insulin induced “carb-coma”
Combination of different energy pathways in rugby may highlight a role for amino-acid
supplementation...
– Exercise/CHO-depletion/Training induces branched-chain oxidation for fuel
Studies:
Wee, S. L., C. Williams, et al. (2005). "Ingestion of a high-glycemic index meal increases muscle glycogen storage at
rest but augments its utilization during subsequent exercise." J Appl Physiol 99(2): 707-714.
The aim of this study was to compare the effect of preexercise breakfast containing high- and lowglycemic index (GI) carbohydrate (CHO) (2.5g CHO/kg body mass) on muscle glycogen metabolism. On two
occasions, 14 days apart, seven trained men ran at 71% maximal oxygen uptake for 30 min on a treadmill. Three
hours before exercise, in a randomized order, subjects consumed either isoenergetic high- (HGI) or low-GI (LGI)
CHO breakfasts that provided (per 70 kg body mass) 3.43 MJ energy, 175 g CHO, 21 g protein, and 4 g fat. The
incremental areas under the 3-h plasma glucose and serum insulin response curves after the HGI meal were 3.9(P < 0.05) and 1.4-fold greater (P < 0.001), respectively, than those after the LGI meal. During the 3-h postprandial
period, muscle glycogen concentration increased by 15% (P < 0.05) after the HGI meal but remained unchanged
after the LGI meal. Muscle glycogen utilization during exercise was greater in the HGI (129.1 +/- 16.1 mmol/kg dry
mass) compared with the LGI (87.9 +/- 15.1 mmol/kg dry mass; P < 0.01) trial. Although the LGI meal contributed
less CHO to muscle glycogen synthesis in the 3-h postprandial period compared with the HGI meal, a sparing of
muscle glycogen utilization during subsequent exercise was observed in the LGI trial, most likely as a result of
better maintained fat oxidation.
Coyle, E. F. (1995). "Substrate utilization during exercise in active people." Am J Clin Nutr 61(4 Suppl): 968S-979S.
When people walk at low intensity after fasting, the energy needed is provided mostly by oxidation of
plasma fatty acids. As exercise intensity increases (eg, to moderate running), plasma fatty acid turnover does not
increase and the additional energy is obtained by utilization of muscle glycogen, blood glucose, and intramuscular
triglyceride. Further increases in exercise intensity are fueled mostly by increases in muscle glycogen utilization
with some additional increase in blood glucose oxidation. Muscle glycogen and blood glucose contribute equally
to carbohydrate energy production over 2-3 h of moderate-intensity exercise; fatigue develops when these
substrates are depleted. Active people can deplete muscle glycogen with 30-60 min of high intensity, intermittent
exercise. When the ingestion of dietary carbohydrate is optimal, it is possible to resynthesize muscle glycogen to
high concentrations in approximately 24 h, which is the major factor in recovery of exercise tolerance. However,
this requires that a 70-kg person eat at least 50 g carbohydrate per every 2 h, beginning soon after exercise, and
ingest 500-600 g in 24 h (ie; approximately 7-9 g/kg body wt). Carbohydrate foods eliciting high glycemic and
insulinemic responses promote more rapid glycogen resynthesis than do foods eliciting lower glycemic responses.
Therefore, foods ingested for energy before, during, or after exercise should be classified according to their
glycemic index. Although carbohydrate ingestion before and during exercise adds exogenous substrate to the
body, it usually attenuates plasma fatty acid mobilization and oxidation
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Cori-cycle and anaerobic concerns
•
•
•
•
Rugby will be heavily dependent on anaerobic repiration and glycolysis, making buffering
strategies vital for performance.
Carnosine is the body’s natural lactate’-buffer and supplementation of precursors (b-alanine)
is now an accepted part of orthodox sports nutrition.
The liver is als vital for anaerobic repiration as this is where lactate is reconverted to
pyruvate.
Aiding Buffereing (studies to follow) or liver-function (as well as systemic acid-base balance)
will therefore likely ease lactic acidosis
Carnosine
H+
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Studies:
Zoeller, R. F., J. R. Stout, et al. (2007). "Effects of 28 days of beta-alanine and creatine monohydrate
supplementation on aerobic power, ventilatory and lactate thresholds, and time to exhaustion." Amino Acids
33(3): 505-510.
Summary.&nbsp;&nbsp;The effect of beta-alanine (β-Ala) alone or in combination with creatine monohydrate (Cr)
on aerobic exercise performance is unknown. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of 4 weeks of
β-Ala and Cr supplementation on indices of endurance performance. Fifty-five men (24.5 ± 5.3 yrs) participated in
a double-blind, placebo-controlled study and randomly assigned to one of 4 groups; placebo (PL, n = 13), creatine
(Cr, n = 12), beta-alanine (β-Ala, n = 14), or beta-alanine plus creatine (CrBA, n = 16). Prior to and following
supplementation, participants performed a graded exercise test on a cycle ergometer to determine VO2peak, time
to exhaustion (TTE), and power output, VO2, and percent VO2peak associated with VT and LT. No significant group
effects were found. However, within groups, a significant time effect was observed for CrBa on 5 of the 8
parameters measured. These data suggest that CrBA may potentially enhance endurance performance.
Suzuki, Y., O. Ito, et al. (2002). "High level of skeletal muscle carnosine contributes to the latter half of exercise
performance during 30-s maximal cycle ergometer sprinting." Jpn J Physiol 52(2): 199-205.
The histidine-containing dipeptide carnosine (beta-alanyl-L-histidine) has been shown to significantly
contribute to the physicochemical buffering in skeletal muscles, which maintains acid-base balance when a large
quantity of H(+) is produced in association with lactic acid accumulation during high-intensity exercise. The
purpose of the present study was to examine the relations among the skeletal muscle carnosine concentration,
fiber-type distribution, and high-intensity exercise performance. The subjects were 11 healthy men. Muscle biopsy
samples were taken from the vastus lateralis at rest. The carnosine concentration was determined by the use of
an amino acid autoanalyzer. The fiber-type distribution was determined by the staining intensity of myosin
adenosinetriphosphatase. The high-intensity exercise performance was assessed by the use of 30-s maximal cycle
ergometer sprinting. A significant correlation was demonstrated between the carnosine concentration and the
type IIX fiber composition (r=0.646, p<0.05). The carnosine concentration was significantly correlated with the
mean power per body mass (r=0.785, p<0.01) during the 30-s sprinting. When dividing the sprinting into 6 phases
(0-5, 6-10, 11-15, 16-20, 21-25, 26-30 s), significant correlations were observed between the carnosine
concentration and the mean power per body mass of the final 2 phases (21-25 s: r=0.694, p<0.05; 26-30 s:
r=0.660, p<0.05). These results indicated that the carnosine concentration could be an important factor in
determining the high-intensity exercise performance.
Goldfinch, J., L. Mc Naughton, et al. (1988). "Induced metabolic alkalosis and its effects on 400-m racing time." Eur
J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 57(1): 45-48.
Six trained male athletes who competed regularly in 400 metre races, were studied under control,
alkalotic (NaHCO3) and placebo (CaCO3) conditions to study the effect of induced metabolic alkalosis on 400 m
racing time. Pre and post exercise blood samples in the three conditions were analysed for pH, bicarbonate and
base excess. Following ingestion of NaHCO3, pre-exercise pH, bicarbonate and base excess levels were
significantly higher than either control or placebo conditions. In the alkalotic condition the subjects ran
significantly (p less than 0.005) faster (1.52 s) than either the control of placebo conditions. The post-exercise pH,
bicarbonate and base excess levels were all lower in the alkalotic condition than in the others. The results suggest
that NaH-CO3 can be used as an effective ergogenic aid and support the speculation that the increased
extracellular buffering afforded by NaHCO3 ingestion facilitated efflux of H+ from the working tissues, thus
decreasing intracellular pH and hence offsetting fatigue.
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Fat
•
Fat Adaptation
–
–
–
•
Fat a major substrate in endurance exercise with carb-sparing a possible benefit
Fat adaptation has been seen to prolong moderate intensity exercise while studies on
high-intensity intervals exist that show both detriment , and no-impairment from fatadaptation
This highlights a possible role for fat adaptation in rugby where sprinting is
interspersed with low/moderate intensity
Medium Chain Triglycerides (MCTs)
–
–
Medium chain fatty acids (MCFAs - eg those from coconut) may increase capacity for
fat oxidation
Replacing dietary fats with MCFAs resulted in enhanced metabolic rate and fatoxidation in athletes
Studies:
Burke, L. M. and J. A. Hawley (2002). "Effects of short-term fat adaptation on metabolism and performance of
prolonged exercise." Med Sci.Sports Exerc. 34(9): 1492-1498.
The concept of manipulating an individuals habitual diet before an exercise bout in an attempt to modify patterns
of fuel substrate utilization and enhance subsequent exercise capacity is not new. Modern studies have focused
on nutritional and training strategies aimed to optimize endogenous carbohydrate (CHO) stores while
simultaneously maximizing the capacity for fat oxidation during continuous, submaximal (60-70% of maximal O(2)
uptake [(.)VO(2max)] exercise. Such "nutritional periodization" typically encompasses 5-6 d of a high-fat diet (6070% E) followed by 1-2 d of high-CHO intake (70-80% E; CHO restoration). Despite the brevity of the adaptation
period, ingestion of a high-fat diet by endurance-trained athletes results in substantially higher rates of fat
oxidation and concomitant muscle glycogen sparing during submaximal exercise compared with an isoenergetic
high-CHO diet. Higher rates of fat oxidation during exercise persist even under conditions in which CHO availability
is increased, either by having athletes consume a high-CHO meal before exercise and/or ingest glucose solutions
during exercise. Yet, despite marked changes in the patterns of fuel utilization that favor fat oxidation, fatadaptation/CHO restoration strategies do not provide clear benefits to the performance of prolonged endurance
exercise
Burke, L. M. and J. A. Hawley (2006). "Fat and carbohydrate for exercise." Curr.Opin.Clin.Nutr.Metab Care 9(4):
476-481.
PURPOSE: To examine the results of new investigations that look at the efficacy of nutrient/training strategies on
metabolism and athletic performance. RECENT FINDINGS: 'Dietary periodization' involves the manipulation of
macronutrient intake in association with changes in physical training. Such interventions have a major effect on
altering patterns of fuel utilization during exercise; however, they often fail to enhance performance capacity. In
contrast, the ingestion of a combination of different types of carbohydrate during exercise results in high rates of
muscle glucose oxidation (1.5 g/min) and can improve intense, short-duration (approximately 60 min), and
prolonged (>90 min) submaximal steady-state exercise, either by metabolic or neural mechanisms. SUMMARY:
Further investigation into the responses of specific nutrient/training strategies on metabolic and cellular signaling
pathways is warranted to determine the underlying mechanisms by which such interventions exert their effect.
Such studies, however, should be coupled with investigations that assess the outcomes of these responses on the
'real life' training adaptations in athletes
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Carey, A. L., H. M. Staudacher, et al. (2001). "Effects of fat adaptation and carbohydrate restoration on prolonged
endurance exercise." J Appl Physiol 91(1): 115-122.
We determined the effect of fat adaptation on metabolism and performance during 5 h of cycling in seven
competitive athletes who consumed a standard carbohydrate (CHO) diet for 1 day and then either a high-CHO diet
(11 g {middle dot} kg[-]1 {middle dot} day[-]1 CHO, 1 g {middle dot} kg[-]1 {middle dot} day[-]1 fat; HCHO) or an
isoenergetic high-fat diet (2.6 g {middle dot} kg[-]1 {middle dot} day[-]1 CHO, 4.6 g {middle dot} kg[-]1 {middle dot}
day[-]1 fat; fat-adapt) for 6 days. On day 8, subjects consumed a high-CHO diet and rested. On day 9, subjects
consumed a preexercise meal and then cycled for 4 h at 65% peak O2 uptake, followed by a 1-h time trial (TT).
Compared with baseline, 6 days of fat-adapt reduced respiratory exchange ratio (RER) with cycling at 65% peak O2
uptake [0.78 {+/-} 0.01 (SE) vs. 0.85 {+/-} 0.02; P < 0.05]. However, RER was restored by 1 day of high-CHO diet,
preexercise meal, and CHO ingestion (0.88 {+/-} 0.01; P < 0.05). RER was higher after HCHO than fat-adapt (0.85
{+/-} 0.01, 0.89 {+/-} 0.01, and 0.93 {+/-} 0.01 for days 2, 8, and 9, respectively; P < 0.05). Fat oxidation during the
4-h ride was greater (171 {+/-} 32 vs. 119 {+/-} 38 g; P < 0.05) and CHO oxidation lower (597 {+/-} 41 vs. 719 {+/-}
46 g; P < 0.05) after fat-adapt. Power output was 11% higher during the TT after fat-adapt than after HCHO (312
{+/-} 15 vs. 279 {+/-} 20 W; P = 0.11). In conclusion, compared with a high-CHO diet, fat oxidation during exercise
increased after fat-adapt and remained elevated above baseline even after 1 day of a high-CHO diet and increased
CHO availability. However, this study failed to detect a significant benefit of fat adaptation to performance of a 1-h
TT undertaken after 4 h of cycling.
Lambert, E. V., D. P. Speechly, et al. (1994). "Enhanced endurance in trained cyclists during moderate intensity
exercise following 2 weeks adaptation to a high fat diet." Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 69(4): 287-293.
These studies investigated the effects of 2 weeks of either a high-fat (HIGH-FAT: 70% fat, 7% CHO) or a highcarbohydrate (HIGH-CHO: 74% CHO, 12% fat) diet on exercise performance in trained cyclists (n = 5) during
consecutive periods of cycle exercise including a Wingate test of muscle power, cycle exercise to exhaustion at
85% of peak power output [90% maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), high-intensity exercise (HIE)] and 50% of peak
power output [60% VO2max, moderate intensity exercise (MIE)]. Exercise time to exhaustion during HIE was not
significantly different between trials: nor were the rates of muscle glycogen utilization during HIE different
between trials, although starting muscle glycogen content was lower [68.1 (SEM 3.9) vs 120.6 (SEM 3.8) mmol.kg1 wet mass, P < 0.01] after the HIGH-FAT diet. Despite a lower muscle glycogen content at the onset of MIE [32
(SEM 7) vs 73 (SEM 6) mmol.kg-1 wet mass, HIGH-FAT vs HIGH-CHO, P < 0.01], exercise time to exhaustion during
subsequent MIE was significantly longer after the HIGH-FAT diet [79.7 (SEM 7.6) vs 42.5 (SEM 6.8) min, HIGH-FAT
vs HIGH-CHO, P < 0.01]. Enhanced endurance during MIE after the HIGH-FAT diet was associated with a lower
respiratory exchange ratio [0.87 (SEM 0.03) vs (SEM 0.02), P < 0.05], and a decreased rate of carbohydrate
oxidation [1.41 (SEM 0.70) vs 2.23 (SEM 0.40) g CHO.min-1, P < 0.05].(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
Seaton, T. B., S. L. Welle, et al. (1986). "Thermic effect of medium-chain and long-chain triglycerides in man."
Am.J.Clin.Nutr. 44(5): 630-634.
The thermic effects of 400 kcal meals of medium-chain triglycerides (MCT) and long-chain triglycerides (LCT) were
compared in seven healthy men. Metabolic rate was measured before the meals and for 6 h after the meals by
indirect calorimetry. Mean postprandial oxygen consumption was 12% higher than basal oxygen consumption
after the MCT meal but was only 4% higher than the basal oxygen consumption after the LCT meal. There was a
25-fold increase in plasma beta-hydroxybutyrate concentration and a slight increase in serum insulin
concentration after MCT ingestion but not after LCT ingestion. Plasma triglyceride concentrations increased 68%
after the LCT meal and did not change after the MCT meal. These data raise the possibility that long-term
substitution of MCT for LCT would produce weight loss if energy intake remained constant
Havemann, L., S. J. West, et al. (2006). "Fat adaptation followed by carbohydrate loading compromises highintensity sprint performance." J Appl Physiol 100(1): 194-202.
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The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of a high-fat diet (HFD) followed by 1 day of
carbohydrate (CHO) loading on substrate utilization, heart rate variability (HRV), effort perception [rating or
perceived exertion (RPE)], muscle recruitment [electromyograph (EMG)], and performance during a 100-km
cycling time trial. In this randomized single-blind crossover study, eight well-trained cyclists completed two trials,
ingesting either a high-CHO diet (HCD) (68% CHO energy) or an isoenergetic HFD (68% fat energy) for 6 days,
followed by 1 day of CHO loading (8-10 g CHO/kg). Subjects completed a 100-km time trial on day 1 and a 1-h
cycle at 70% of peak oxygen consumption on days 3, 5, and 7, during which resting HRV and resting and exercising
respiratory exchange ratio (RER) were measured. On day 8, subjects completed a 100-km performance time trial,
during which blood samples were drawn and EMG was recorded. Ingestion of the HFD reduced RER at rest (P <
0.005) and during exercise (P < 0.01) and increased plasma free fatty acid levels (P < 0.01), indicating increased fat
utilization. There was a tendency for the low-frequency power component of HRV to be greater for HFD-CHO (P =
0.056), suggestive of increased sympathetic activation. Overall 100-km time-trial performance was not different
between diets; however, 1-km sprint power output after HFD-CHO was lower (P < 0.05) compared with HCD-CHO.
Despite a reduced power output with HFD-CHO, RPE, heart rate, and EMG were not different between trials. In
conclusion, the HFD-CHO dietary strategy increased fat oxidation, but compromised high intensity sprint
performance, possibly by increased sympathetic activation or altered contractile function.
Hydration
•
•
•
•
•
•
Dehydration as little as 2% body mass impairs aerobic, anaerobic, strength and cognitive
performance
Can make physiological efforts increase for a given power output due to cardiovascular-drift
imposed by increased plasma viscosity/decreased plasma-volume
This degree of dehydration can also decrease cerebral ventricular volume by up to 30%,
increasing the risk of head trauma
Pre Match: 500 ml of water or sports-drink in the 90 minutes before the game
During – aim to replace sweat losses, including electrolytes
If fluid-losses have not been prevented, drink 1.5x sweat-losses, including electrolytes
Studies:
Coyle, E. F. (1998). "Cardiovascular drift during prolonged exercise and the effects of dehydration." Int J Sports
Med 19 Suppl 2: S121-124.
Reductions in SV are the most striking component of "classic" CV drift as well as "dehydration induced"
CV drift. Direct data for the widespread notion that increased skin blood flow causes SV to be reduced during
"classic" CV drift is rather scarce. Reductions in SV due to dehydration and concomitant hyperthermia are clearly
not due to increases in skin blood flow. Instead, skin blood flow declines as skin and systemic vascular resistance
increase as the CV system attempts to cope with the severe challenge of large reductions in cardiac output.
Approximately one-half of the reduction in SV is due to reduced blood volume from dehydration during exercise
which produces hyperthermia. The remaining reduction in SV with dehydration and hyperthermia appears to be
related to additional factors such as hyperthermia and their interaction with factors that further reduce
ventricular filling, such as heart rate acceleration.
Maughan, R. J. (2003). "Impact of mild dehydration on wellness and on exercise performance." Eur.J Clin.Nutr. 57
Suppl 2: S19-S23.
Chronic mild dehydration is a common condition in some population groups, including especially the
elderly and those who participate in physical activity in warm environments. Hypohydration is recognised as a
precipitating factor in a number of acute medical conditions in the elderly, and there may be an association,
although not necessarily a causal one, between a low habitual fluid intake and some cancers, cardiovascular
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disease and diabetes. There is some evidence of impairments of cognitive function at moderate levels of
hypohydration, but even short periods of fluid restriction, leading to a loss of body mass of 1-2%, lead to
reductions in the subjective perception of alertness and ability to concentrate and to increases in self-reported
tiredness and headache. In exercise lasting more than a few minutes, hypohydration clearly impairs performance
capacity, but muscle strength appears to be relatively unaffected
Dickson, J. M., H. M. Weavers, et al. (2005). "The effects of dehydration on brain volume -- preliminary results."
Int.J.Sports Med. 26(6): 481-485.
In adults the cranium is a rigid bony vault of fixed size and therefore the intra-cranial volume is a constant
which equals the sum of the volume of the brain, the intra-cranial volume of CSF and the intra-cranial volume of
blood. There can be marked changes in the volumes of these three intra-cranial compartments which may
influence susceptibility to brain damage after head injury. This is the first study to investigate the relationship
between dehydration and changes in the volume of the brain and the cerebral ventricles. Six healthy control
subjects underwent magnetic resonance imaging of the brain before and after a period of exercise in an
environmental chamber. The subjects lost between 2.1 % and 2.6 % of their body mass due to water loss through
sweating. We found a correlation between the degree of dehydration and the change in ventricular volume
(r=0.932, p=0.007). The changes in ventricular volume caused by dehydration were much larger than those seen in
day-to-day fluctuations in a normally hydrated healthy control subject
Enhancing Adaptation
•
•
•
Typical endurance adaptations include
– Mitochondrial Biogenesis
– Capillary density increases
– Ventricular volume increases
Nutritional amino-acid interventions immediately post-training can support adaptation
Leucine/Whey/Branched-chain
– Fast release
– Oxidation
– mTOR-mediated anabolic signaling
Depleted state training
•
•
•
Was employed throughout cycling-training by the world’s most successful triathlete
Peter Robertson, who consumed only celery and carrot-juice on the bike to maximise
endurance adaptation!
Increases glycogen storage in the muscle
Increases Mitochondrial biogenesis and the capacity for energy production Is needed
for fat adaptation
Studies:
Zong, H., J. M. Ren, et al. (2002). "AMP kinase is required for mitochondrial biogenesis in skeletal muscle in
response to chronic energy deprivation." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of
America 99(25): 15983-15987.
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Mitochondrial biogenesis is a critical adaptation to chronic energy deprivation, yet the signaling
mechanisms responsible for this response are poorly understood. To examine the role of AMP-activated protein
kinase (AMPK), an evolutionarily conserved fuel sensor, in mitochondrial biogenesis we studied transgenic mice
expressing a dominant-negative mutant of AMPK in muscle (DN-AMPK). Both DN-AMPK and WT mice were
treated with β-guanidinopropionic acid (GPA), a creatine analog, which led to similar reductions in the
intramuscular ATP/AMP ratio and phosphocreatine concentrations. In WT mice, GPA treatment resulted in
activation of muscle AMPK and mitochondrial biogenesis. However, the same GPA treatment in DN-AMPK mice
had no effect on AMPK activity or mitochondrial content. Furthermore, AMPK inactivation abrogated GPA-induced
increases in the expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator 1α and
calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase IV (both master regulators of mitochondrial biogenesis). These data
demonstrate that by sensing the energy status of the muscle cell, AMPK is a critical regulator involved in initiating
mitochondrial biogenesis.
Wojtaszewski, J. F. P., C. MacDonald, et al. (2003). "Regulation of 5'AMP-activated protein kinase activity and
substrate utilization in exercising human skeletal muscle." Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 284(4): E813-822.
The metabolic role of 5'AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) in regulation of skeletal muscle metabolism
in humans is unresolved. We measured isoform-specific AMPK activity and [beta]-acetyl-CoA carboxylase
(ACC[beta]) Ser221 phosphorylation and substrate balance in skeletal muscle of eight athletes at rest, during
cycling exercise for 1 h at 70% peak oxygen consumption, and 1 h into recovery. The experiment was performed
twice, once in a glycogen-loaded (glycogen concentration ~900 mmol/kg dry wt) and once in a glycogen-depleted
(glycogen concentration ~160 mmol/kg dry wt) state. At rest, plasma long-chain fatty acids (FA) were twofold
higher in the glycogen-depleted than in the loaded state, and muscle [alpha]1 AMPK (160%) and [alpha]2 AMPK
(145%) activities and ACC[beta] Ser221 phosphorylation (137%) were also significantly higher in the glycogendepleted state. During exercise, [alpha]2 AMPK activity, ACC[beta] Ser221 phosphorylation, plasma
catecholamines, and leg glucose and net FA uptake were significantly higher in the glycogen-depleted than in the
glycogen-loaded state without apparent differences in muscle high-energy phosphates. Thus exercise in the
glycogen-depleted state elicits an enhanced uptake of circulating fuels that might be associated with elevated
muscle AMPK activation. It is concluded that muscle AMPK activity and ACC[beta] Ser221 phosphorylation at rest
and during exercise are sensitive to the fuel status of the muscle. During exercise, this dependence may in part be
mediated by humoral factors.
Systemic Hormonal Effects
•
•
•
•
•
•
Testosterone essential for strength and power endurance, (rather than just aerobic)
Certain hormonal factors at centre of many types of fitness, especially in such an integrated
sport as rugby
Relative T/C ratios correlated with Performance in Elite Athletes, including Rugby and AussieRules
T/C seen to have similar relationships to each of strength, endurance and repeated sprints
following over-reaching in rugby players
Major determinant of recovery in endurance athletes, with subsequent anabolism dependent
on normalisation of T/C ratio
This highlights a role for nutritional hormonal protocols, with much evidence supporting
herbal remedies for T production, including Red Clover and Tribulus
Studies:
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Coutts, A., P. Reaburn, et al. (2007). "Changes in Selected Biochemical, Muscular Strength, Power, and Endurance
Measures during Deliberate Overreaching and Tapering in Rugby League Players." Int J Sports Med 28(02): 116124.
The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of overreaching on muscle strength, power,
endurance and selected biochemical responses in rugby league players. Seven semi-professional rugby league
players (V·O2max = 56.1 ± 1.7 mL · kg -1 · min-1; age = 25.7 ± 2.6 yr; BMI = 27.6 ± 2.0) completed 6 weeks of
progressive overload training with limited recovery periods. A short 7-day stepwise reduction taper immediately
followed the overload period. Measures of muscular strength, power and endurance and selected biochemical
parameters were taken before and after overload training and taper. Multistage fitness test running performance
was significantly reduced (12.3 %) following the overload period. Although most other performance measures
tended to decrease following the overload period, only peak hamstring torque at 1.05 rad · s -1 was significantly
reduced (p < 0.05). Following the taper, a significant increase in peak hamstring torque and isokinetic work at both
slow (1.05 rad · s -1) and fast (5.25 rad · s -1) movement velocities were observed. Minimum clinically important
performance decreases were measured in a multistage fitness test, vertical jump, 3-RM squat and 3-RM bench
press and chin-upmax following the overload period. Following the taper, minimum clinically important increases
in the multistage fitness test, vertical jump, 3-RM squat and 3-RM bench press and chin-upmax and 10-m sprint
performance were observed. Compared to resting measures, the plasma testosterone to cortisol ratio, plasma
glutamate, plasma glutamine to glutamate ratio and plasma creatine kinase activity demonstrated significant
changes at the end of the overload training period (p < 0.05). These results suggest that muscular strength, power
and endurance were reduced following the overload training, indicating a state of overreaching. The most likely
explanation for the decreased performance is increased muscle damage via a decrease in the anabolic-catabolic
balance.
Cormack, S. J. N., R.U.; McGuigan, R.M (2008). "Neuromuscular and Endocrine Responses of Elite Players During an
Australian Rules Football Season" International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 3: 439-453.
Purpose: To examine variations in neuromuscular and hormonal status and their relationship to performance
throughout a season of elite Australian Rules Football (ARF).
Methods: Fifteen elite ARF players performed a single jump (CMJ1) and 5 repeated countermovement jumps
(CMJ5), and provided saliva samples for the analysis of cortisol (C) and testosterone (T) before the season
commenced (Pre) and during the 22-match season. Magnitudes of effects were reported with the effect size (ES)
statistic. Correlations were performed to analyze relationships between assessment variables and match time,
training load, and performance. Results: CMJ1Flight time:Contraction time was substantially reduced on 60% of
measurement occasions.
Magnitudes of change compared with Pre ranged from 1.0 ± 7.4% (ES 0.04 ± 0.29) to −17.1 ± 21.8% (ES −0.77 ±
0.81). Cortisol was substantially lower (up to −40 ± 14.1%, ES of −2.17 ± 0.56) than Pre in all but one comparison.
Testosterone response was varied, whereas T:C increased substantially on 70% of occasions, with increases to
92.7 ± 27.8% (ES 2.03 ± 0.76). CMJ1Flight time:Contraction time (r = .24 ± 0.13) and C displayed (r = −0.16 ± 0.1)
small correlations with performance. Conclusion:
The response of CMJ1Flight time:Contraction time suggests periods of neuromuscular fatigue. Change in T:C
indicates subjects were unlikely to have been in a catabolic state during the season. Increase in C compared with
Pre had a small negative correlation with performance. Both CMJ1Flight time:Contraction time and C may be
useful variables for monitoring responses to training and competition in elite ARF athletes.
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Brown, G. A., M. D. Vukovich, et al. (2001). "Effects of androstenedione-herbal supplementation on serum sex
hormone concentrations in 30- to 59-year-old men." Int.J Vitam.Nutr.Res. 71(5): 293-301.
The effectiveness of a nutritional supplement designed to enhance serum testosterone concentrations
and prevent the formation of dihydrotestosterone and estrogens from the ingested androgens was investigated in
healthy 30- to 59-year old men. Subjects were randomly assigned to consume DION (300 mg androstenedione,
150 mg dehydroepiandrosterone, 540 mg saw palmetto, 300 mg indole-3-carbinol, 625 mg chrysin, and 750 mg
Tribulus terrestris per day; n = 28) or placebo (n = 27) for 28 days. Serum free testosterone, total testosterone,
androstenedione, dihydrotestosterone, estradiol, prostate-specific antigen (PSA), and lipid concentrations were
measured before and throughout the 4-week supplementation period. Serum concentrations of total testosterone
and PSA were unchanged by supplementation. DION increased (p < 0.05) serum androstenedione (342%), free
testosterone (38%), dihydrotestosterone (71%), and estradiol (103%) concentrations. Serum HDL-C concentrations
were reduced by 5.0 mg/dL in DION (p < 0.05). Increases in serum free testosterone (r2 = 0.01), androstenedione
(r2 = 0.01), dihydrotestosterone (r2 = 0.03), or estradiol (r2 = 0.07) concentrations in DION were not related to
age. While the ingestion of androstenedione combined with herbal products increased serum free testosterone
concentrations in older men, these herbal products did not prevent the conversion of ingested androstenedione
to estradiol and dihydrotestosterone
Jarred, R. A., M. Keikha, et al. (2002). "Induction of apoptosis in low to moderate-grade human prostate carcinoma
by red clover-derived dietary isoflavones." Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 11(12): 1689-1696.
Epidemiological evidence suggests a geographical basis for the incidence of prostate cancer and dietary
factors, including isoflavone consumption, may be linked to this phenomenon. This paper reports a
nonrandomized, nonblinded trial with historically matched controls from archival tissue designed to determine
the effects of acute exposure to a dietary supplement of isoflavones in men with clinically significant prostate
cancer before radical prostatectomy. Thirty-eight patients were recruited to the study upon diagnosis of prostate
cancer. Before surgery, 20 men consumed 160 mg/day of red clover-derived dietary isoflavones, containing a
mixture of genistein, daidzein, formononetin, and biochanin A. Serum PSA, testosterone, and biochemical factors
were measured, and clinical and pathological parameters were recorded. The incidence of apoptosis in prostate
tumor cells from radical prostatectomy specimens was compared between 18 treated and 18 untreated control
tissues. There were no significant differences between pre- and posttreatment serum PSA, Gleason score, serum
testosterone, or biochemical factors in the treated patients (P > 0.05). Apoptosis in radical prostatectomy
specimens from treated patients was significantly higher than in control subjects (P = 0.0018), specifically in
regions of low to moderate-grade cancer (Gleason grade 1-3). No adverse events related to the treatment were
reported. This report suggests that dietary isoflavones may halt the progression of prostate cancer by inducing
apoptosis in low to moderate-grade tumors, potentially contributing to the lower incidence of clinically significant
disease in Asian men. The assessment of new prostatic therapies aimed at increasing apoptosis should control for
intake of dietary isoflavones.
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