The components of the respiratory system (F.
Martini, A&P, 2004)
The respiratory epithelium
of the nasal cavity and
conducting system
(F. Martini, A&P, 2004)
The nose (a) and nasal cavity (b)
(F. Martini, A&P, 2004)
The pharynx
(F. Martini, A&P, 2004)
The anatomy of the larynx
(F. Martini, A&P, 2004)
The glottis
(a) A diagrammatic superior view of the entrance to the larynx, with the glottis
open (left) and closed (right). (b) A fiber optic view of the entrance to the
larynx, corresponding to the right-hand image in part (a). Note that the glottis
is almost completely closed by the vocal folds.
(F. Martini, A&P, 2004)
The anatomy of the trachea (F.
Martini, A&P, 2004)
The gross
anatomy of
the lungs
(F. Martini,
A&P, 2004)
The bronchioles
(a) The distribution of a respiratory bronchiole supplying a
portion of a lobule. (b) Alveolar sacs and alveoli (LM X 42).
(c) An SEM of the lung, showing the spongy appearance of
the lung tissue (F. Martini, A&P, 2004).
Alveolar organization
(a) The basic structure of a portion
of a single lobule. A network of
capillaries, supported by elastic
fibers, surrounds each alveolus.
Respiratory bronchioles also
contain wrappings of smooth
muscle that can change the
diameter of these airways.
(b) A diagrammatic view of
alveolar structure. A single
capillary may be involved
with gas exchange across
several alveoli
simultaneously. (c) The
respiratory membrane,
which consists of an
alveolar epithelial cell, a
capillary epithelial cell, a
capillary endothelial cell,
and their fused basal
laminae (F. Martini, A&P, 2004).
An overview of key steps in respiration
(F. Martini, A&P, 2004)
Mechanisms of pulmonary
ventilation
(a) As the ribs are elevated or the
diaphragm is depressed, the
volume of the thoracic cavity
increases.
(b) An anterior view with the
diaphragm at rest, with no air
movement.
(c) Inhalation: Elevation of the rib
cage and contraction of the
diaphragm increase the size of
the thoracic cavity. Pressure
decreases, and air flows into the
lungs.
(d) Exhalation: When the rib cage
returns to its original position,
the volume of the thoracic cavity
decreases. Pressure rises, and air
moves out of the lungs.
(F. Martini, A&P, 2004)
Pressure changes during inhalation and exhalation
These graphs follow changes in the (a) intrapulmonary
and (b) intrapleural pressures during a single respiratory
cycle and related the changes to (c) the tidal volume. (F.
Martini, A&P, 2004).
The respiratory muscles
(a) Movements of the ribs and
diaphragm that increase the
volume of the thoracic
cavity.
(b) Anterior view at rest, with
no air movement showing
the primary and accessory
respiratory muscles.
(c) A lateral view during
inhalation, showing the
muscles that elevate the
ribs.
(d) A lateral view during
exhalation, showing the
muscles that depress the
ribs. The abdominal
muscles that assist in
exhalation are represented
by the single muscle
(rectus abdominis)
(F. Martini, A&P, 2004)
Respiratory volumes and capacities
(F. Martini, A&P, 2004)
An overview of
respiratory
processes and
partial pressures
in respiration
(a) Partial pressures
and diffusion at the
respiratory membrane.
(b) Partial pressures
and diffusion in other
tissues.
(F. Martini, A&P, 2004)
The oxygen-hemoglobin saturation curve
(F. Martini, A&P, 2004)
The effects of ph and temperature on hemoglobin saturation
(a) When the ph drops below normal levels, more oxygen is released; the hemoglobin
saturation curve shifts to the right. If the ph increases, less oxygen is released; the
curve shifts to the left. (b) When the temperature rises, the saturation curve shifts to
the right (F. Martini, A&P, 2004).
Carbon dioxide
transport in blood
(F. Martini, A&P, 2004)
Gas transport mechanisms
(a) Oxygen transport. (b) Carbon dioxide transport (F. Martini, A&P, 2004).
Respiratory centers and reflex
controls
The position of the major respiratory
centers and other factors important to
the reflex control of respiration.
Pathways for conscious control over
respiratory muscles are not shown.
(F. Martini, A&P, 2004)
Aging and the decline in respiratory performance
The relative respiratory performances of individuals who have never smoked,
individuals who quit smoking at age 45, individuals who quit smoking at age 65, and
lifelog smokers (F. Martini, A&P, 2004).