CHAPTER THREE
The Psychological Approach: A Profusion of
Theories
Psychology
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The scientific study of mind and behavior.
Uses the scientific method as a means of
gaining knowledge.
Investigates internal mental events such as
reasoning, language, and memory.
Also investigates external behaviors such as
talking, walking, and grasping.
The Scientific Method
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A theory is a general understanding of the
world that organizes a set of facts and aids us
in understanding how the world works.
A hypothesis is a more specific statement
about the world that is frequently derived from
a hypothesis and can be tested.
Experiments
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Scientists use experiments to test hypotheses.
An experiment must have at least two
variables.
The independent variable is manipulated by
the researcher.
The dependent variable is measured by the
researcher.
Experiments
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An experiment must also have at least two
conditions or groups.
The experimental group receives the
independent variable.
The control group does not.
Experiments – An Example
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Theory: Practice facilitates problem solving.
Hypothesis: Doing logic problems before being
tested will increase scores on a subsequent
logic test.
Experiments – An Example
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Experimental
group:
20 participants.
Allowed to practice
solving problems for
10 minutes.
Then given a test
problem.
Independent
variable is practice.
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Control group:
•
20 participants.
Not allowed to
practice.
Given the same test
problem.
Dependent variable
is scores on the test.
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Experiments – An Example
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Scores on the
dependent variable for
the two groups are
compared.
If test scores in the
experimental group are
significantly higher,
then the hypothesis is
supported.
Voluntarism
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Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) is founder.
View that the mind is made up of elements.
The elements are assembled into wholes
through an act of will.
Influenced by atoms and molecules of
chemistry.
Introspection
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Method used by the voluntarists and other
early psychologists.
Means “inner looking.” Consists of subjective
self-report of mental states.
Fraught with difficulties.
Structuralism
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Edward Titchener (1867-1927) considered
founder.
Shares the beliefs that mind is made of
elements and use of introspection with
voluntarism.
But viewed element combination occurring
through passive mechanical laws.
Functionalism
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Closely associated with William James (18421910).
Focus is on mental processes and functions
rather than elements.
Idea of a stream of consciousness. Thought is
flowing and changing, not static.
Gestalt Psychology
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Contributors include Wertheimer (1880-1943),
Kohler (1887-1967), and Koffka (1886-1941).
View that mind consists of wholes that are
more than the sum of their parts, described as
a gestalt.
Method was phenomenology, a subjective
description of an external stimulus.
Laws of Perceptual Organization
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Parts group together
based on their
relationships.
Parts that are (a)
proximal, (b) similar,
and form (c) closed or
(d) good figures tend to
go together.
Insight Learning
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Initial attempts to solve a problem fail.
Problem is put aside for some time.
Solution occurs rapidly, perhaps through
unconscious processes, and is then verified.
Kohler’s chimp
incubates on a
problem.
Psychoanalytic Psychology
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Established by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939).
Mind is made up of “mini-minds” that compete for
control.
Three states of consciousness:
1.
2.
3.
Conscious
Preconscious
Unconscious
Psychoanalytic Psychology
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1.
2.
3.
In addition, three
primary mental
structures:
Id. Runs on the pleasure
principle.
Superego. Runs on the
idealistic principle.
Ego. Runs on the reality
principle.
Behaviorism
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The mind of an organism (O) is a “Black Box.” It cannot
be studied.
Focus is instead on behaviors or responses (R).
Responses can be controlled through stimuli (S).
Types of Learning
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Classical conditioning:
Unconditioned stimulus (US).
Unconditioned response
(UR).
Conditioned stimulus (CS).
Conditioned response (CR).
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Operant conditioning:
Reinforcement.
Punishment.
Interdisciplinary Crossroads: Studying
Grouping Quantitatively
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Kubovy and Wagemans (1995) showed six lattice
types to observers.
They reported which way the dots grouped.
The likelihood of grouping was plotted as a function
of the distances between dots.
The resulting attraction function showed an
exponential increase.