Anatomy and Physiology
Types of Joint Movements
A.
The following terms describe movements at
joints (p. 165): There will be a quiz on these!
1. Flexion
2. Extension
3. Dorsiflexion
4. Plantar flexion
5. Hyperextension
6. Abduction
7. Adduction
8. Rotation
9. Circumduction
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
Pronation
Supination
Eversion
Inversion
Retraction
Protraction
Elevation
Depression
7.1 Introduction
Bone is an active, living tissue.
B. Composed of:
A.
1. Bone tissue, cartilage, dense connective tissue,
blood, and nervous tissue.
7.1 Introduction (and 7.4 Bone Function)
Supports and gives shape to the body.
B. Protects internal organs.
A.
1.
C.
1.
D.
1.
E.
Skull, rib cage and shoulder girdle, pelvic girdle.
Helps make movements possible.
Bones and muscles form levers.
Hematopoiesis or blood cell formation (red
bone marrow).
Begins in yolk sac, later in liver and spleen, and
still later in bone marrow.
Passageway for blood vessels and nerves.
7.1 Introduction (and 7.4 Bone Function)
Stores inorganic salts.
F.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Bone stores calcium in the form of calcium
phosphate.
Blood calcium is low, parathyroid hormone
stimulates osteoclasts to break down tissue and
release calcium.
Blood calcium is high, osteoclasts are inhibited
and osteoblasts form bone tissue (stores extra
calcium).
Calcium is needed for muscle contraction, nerve
impulse conduction, and blood clotting.
7.2 Bone Structure
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Long: humerus (upper arm), femur (upper leg)
Short: carpals (wrist)
Flat: frontal (skull), scapula (shoulder)
Irregular: vertebrae (spine)
Sesamoid (round): patella (knee)
7.2 Bone Structure
F.
Parts of a Long Bone
1. Epiphyses or ends of the bone; spongy bone
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
contains red bone marrow.
Articular cartilage: Covers epiphyses as a cushion.
Diaphysis or shaft.
Medullary cavity containing yellow marrow.
Endosteum: Lines medullary cavity.
Periosteum: Tough, vascular covering of fibrous
tissue.
7.2 Bone Structure
G.
Microscopic Structure
Spongy
1.
Also called cancellous
bone.
b. Texture results from
needlelike threads of bone
called trabeculae
surrounded by a network of
open spaces.
c. Found in epiphyses of
bones.
d. Spaces contain red bone
marrow.
a.
Red and Yellow Bone Marrow
Section through femoral head
2. Compact
a. Structural unit is an osteon (Haversian
system) composed of concentric lamella,
lacunae containing osteocytes, and
canaliculi, all covered by periosteum.
7.3 Bone Development and Growth
Intramembranous Bones
A.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Broad, flat bones of the skull.
Form by replacing unspecialized connective tissue.
Osteoblasts become active and deposit bony matrix
in the form of spongy bone.
Once completely surrounded by matrix they are
termed osteocytes.
The periosteum develops and osteoblasts form
compact bone over spongy bone – this is termed
ossification.
Bone remodeling video
7.3 Bone Development and Growth
B.
Endochondral Bones
1. Most bones are this type.
2. Formed from hyaline cartilage “models” that are
3.
4.
5.
6.
gradually replaced with harder tissue of bone.
Primary ossification begins in center of diaphysis
and secondary ossification at the epiphyses.
Epiphyseal plate (metaphysis) remains between the
primary and secondary centers.
Epiphyseal plates are cartilaginous tissue and
where bone lengthens (until they ossify).
Long bones thicken as compact bone is formed
under the periosteum.
Bone Growth and Development
Epiphyseal
Plate
Epiphyseal
Plate
7.3 Bone Development and Growth
C.
Homeostasis of Bone Tissue
1. 3 -5% of bone calcium is exchanged each year.
2. Osteoclasts break down calcified matrix by
secreting an acid.
3. Osteoblasts invade the region and deposit new
bone tissue.
4. This occurs through life and hormones that
regulate blood calcium control this process.
7.3 Bone Development and Growth
D.
A number of factors influence bone
development, growth, and repair.
1. Vitamin D is necessary for absorption of calcium
in the small intestine.
a.
Without it the matrix of bone lacks calcium causing
softening and deformity.
2. Growth hormone secreted by the anterior
pituitary stimulates cartilage in epiphyseal plate.
3. Sex hormones stimulate ossification of
epiphyseal plate.
4. Physical exercise stimulates bone to thicken and
strengthen.
VI. Divisions of the Skeleton
A.
Skeleton composed of the following divisions
and subdivisions:
1. Axial skeleton
a. Skull
b. Spine (vertebrae)
c. Thorax (ribs and sternum)
d. Hyoid Bone
2. Appendicular skeleton
a. Upper extremities, including shoulder girdle (clavicle
& scapula).
b. Lower extremities, including hip girdle (hip bones).
VII. Differences Between a Man’s
and Woman’s Skeleton
Size: Male skeleton generally larger.
B. Shape of pelvis: Male pelvis deep and narrow;
female pelvis broad and shallow.
C. Size of pelvic inlet: Female pelvic inlet
generally wider, normally large enough for
baby’s head to pass through.
D. Pubic angle: Angle between pubic bones of
female generally wider.
A.
Female and Male Pelvis
VIII. Joints (Articulations)
A.
Kinds of Joints
Functional junctions between bones.
Classified by type of movement made:
1.
2.
a.
b.
c.
Synarthroses (no movement)
Amphiarthroses (slight movement)
Diarthrotic (freely moveable)
Fibrous Joints
B.
1.
2.
Between bones that closely contact each other.
Sutures of the skull – no movement – synarthroses
Cartilaginous Joints
C.
1.
2.
Vertebrae of vertebral column, symphysis pubis, 1st rib
and sternum
Limited movement - amphiarthroses
Synarthroses
Amphiarthroses
D.
Synovial Joints
1. Allow free movement – diarthroses
2. Structures of freely moveable joints – joint
capsule and ligament hold adjoining bones
together.
a. Articular cartilage: Covers joint ends of bones
and absorbs jolts.
b. Synovial membrane: Lines joint capsule and
secretes lubricating fluid.
c. Joint cavity space between joint ends of bones.
3. Some have fibrocartilage called menisci
4. Others have bursae. Common between
tendons and underlying bones
E.
Types of freely moveable joints:
1. Ball and socket – Shoulder, hip
2. Hinge – Elbow, knee
3. Pivot – Radius and humerus
4. Saddle - Thumb
5. Gliding – Carpal, tarsal
6. Condyloid – Hand (Metacarpal and Phalange)
Ball and Socket
Hinge
Pivot
Saddle Joint
Gliding
Disorders of the Skeletal System
A.
B.
Bone tumors and cancers: Benign and
malignant neoplasms of bone, cartilage, and
fibrous tissue.
Metabolic bone diseases
1. Osteoporosis: Excessive loss of bone matrix
(mineral and collagen).
2. Osteomalacia: Softening of bone from loss of
mineral (but not volume) in bone matrix; called
rickets in children. Due to lack of Vitamin D.
3. Paget Disease: Osteitis deformans; abnormal
remodeling in which spongy bone is replaced by
disorganized, excessive bone matrix.
Rickets
Osteoporosis
Paget Disease
This is an advanced case of Paget's disease in the tibia.
The bone has become very large in comparison to the
fibula and the trabeculae have become very coarse.
Osteomalacia
Paget Disease
C. Bone Infection
1. Osteomyelitis: General term for bacterial (usually
staphylococcal) infection of bone.
2. Bone infections may also be caused by virus,
fungi, and other pathogens.
D. Bone Fractures
1. Open (Compound) fractures: Pierce the skin.
2. Closed (Simple): Do not pierce skin.
3. Complete fractures involve total separation of
bone fragments.
4. Incomplete (Greenstick, fissure): Involve partially
separated fragments.
5. Comminuted: Involve many fragments.
6. Fracture lines can be spiral, transverse, or
oblique.
Osteomyelitis of Big Toe
Closed
Fracture
Comminuted Fracture
A transverse fracture
of the tibial shaft.
Oblique Fracture
Patient with an anterior dislocation of the
right shoulder.
E.
Joint Disorders
1.
Noninflammatory joint disease does not usually
involve inflammation of the synovial membrane.
a. Osteoarthritis: Degenerative joint disease;
degeneration of articular cartilage.
b. Traumatic Injuries:
i. Subluxation: Dislocation of articular
surfaces.
ii. Sprain: Damage involving ligaments.
Osteoarthritis
Ankle Sprain
2. Inflammatory joint disease (arthritis): Inflammation
of synovial membrane with systemic signs or
symptoms.
a. Rheumatoid arthritis: Autoimmune inflammation of
synovial membrane and other structures; juvenile
form especially severe.
b. Gouty arthritis: Synovial inflammation caused by
gout, a condition in which sodium urate crystals
form in joints and other tissues.
c. Infectious arthritis: Arthritis resulting from infection
by a pathogen, as in Lyme Disease.
Joints typically affected by
rheumatoid arthritis
Rheumatoid Arthritis
Gouty Arthritis