TIME 3 (1754-1800)
British imperial attempts to reassert control over its colonies and the colonial reaction to these attempts produced a new American republic, along with struggles over the new nation’s social, political, and economic identity .
I.
Chapter Summary:
In Chapter 6, we consider the tasks the American patriots had to accomplish in order to achieve victory in the
Revolutionary war. The first section, “Government by Congress and Committee,” concerns the ideological and political task of transforming the resistance movement into a coalition supporting independence. Several factors made achievement of this task possible:


The process by which delegates were elected the First Continental Congress

The presences of respected political figures at the Congress
The ability of the Congress to allow debate among divergent interest groups in the formulation of a compromise policy
 The election of committees of observation and inspection at the local level as a means by which to enforce the
Continental Association

The emergence of popularly elected provincial congresses to take over the reins of colonial government
The interaction of these factors leads to the conclusion that “independence was being won at the local level.” Such an occurrence made American victory not only possible but likely. However, as noted in “Contest in the Backcountry,” settlers pouring into the region of Kentucky came into conflict with Native Americans in that area just as the Revolutionary War began.
Transforming the resistance movement into a coalition supporting independence also involved defeating potential internal enemies. Congress, recognizing that settlers pouring into the region of Kentucky would likely support the side that best served their interests, acted to protect those settlers from Native Americans. Although Congress recognized the potential threat of Native Americans to the patriot cause and, as a result, sought Native American neutrality, in the end a lack of unity prevented the Native American threat from materializing. Patriot policies, built on a broad popular base, were also effective in isolating the loyalist minority and in defusing them as a potential threat. Moreover, although slaves were drawn to the British side as the side that could offer them freedom, they never became a real threat to the Patriot cause because: (1) African
Americans did not rally to the British side as much as expected, and (2) southern patriots were successful in manipulating white fears concerning a slave conspiracy.
In the section “War and Independence,” we see how the political and ideological tasks confronting the patriots converged. The British frame of reference toward the war becomes clear through the context of the early skirmishes at
Lexington and Concord. At this time, the Second Continental Congress assumed responsibility for organizing the American war effort and selected George Washington as command of the Continental Army. The discussion of Washington’s background, beliefs, and war strategy suggest that his selection was an additional reason for eventual American victory.
As both sides prepared to deal with the military tasks of the war, the ideological war continued to rage. Decisive
American victory in this realm was largely due to the efforts of Thomas Paine and Thomas Jefferson. These men so eloquently defined the American cause that they established principles that aided the war effort and served as a solid base on which the new republic was founded.
In the last sections of the chapter, the military task of defeating the British takes center stage. The discussion of the northern and southern campaigns shows the importance of these factors in the patriot victory:
 The false assumptions on which the British based their strategy

The battlefield errors of the British

Washington’s strategy of avoiding decisive losses

The almost unlimited reservoir of man and woman power available to the American side

The commitment to the patriot cause that developed among the officers in the Continental Army

American perseverance and resourcefulness

American policies that effectively swayed the populace to the patriots’ side

The Franco-American alliance of 1778
The chapter ends with a discussion of the Battle of Yorktown, the final skirmishes of the war, the impact of the war on the Native Americans, and the Treaty of Paris.
Introduction
The American Revolution required patriot leaders to establish a coalition in favor of independence, to gain foreign recognition, and to ensure the survival of the army by avoiding decisive battle loses at the hands of the British army.

II.
III.
V.
IV.
Government by Congress and Committee a.
First Continental Congress
The Congress had to define its grievances and define a plan of resistance. A third goal, outlining constitutional relations with
England, proved more troublesome.
The Congress accepted the Declaration of Rights and Grievances, which declared that the colonies would obey bona fide acts of Parliament and would resist taxes in disguise . b.
Continental Association
The Congress also adopted the Continental Association, which called for nonimportation of British goods, non-consumption of British products, and non-exportation of American goods to Britain and the British West Indies. c.
Committees of Observation
Congress called for the creation of committees of observation and inspection to enforce its economic proposals. These committees became de facto governments and developed elaborate spy networks to identify opponents of American resistance. d.
Provincial Conventions
By the early spring of 1775, many colonial governments were collapsing in the face of patriot challenges to their authority.
Popularly elected provincial conventions took over the task of governing in most colonies.
Contest in the Backcountry a.
Distrust and Warfare
Land-hungry colonists swarmed onto the lands along the Ohio River and its tributaries after the mid-1760s.
“Lord Dunmore’s war” occurred in 1774 as Virginia attempted to assert its title to the backcountry in Kentucky, on the south side of the Ohio River.
Both the British and the Americans sought to maintain Native-American neutrality rather than active participation in the war. b.
Frontier Hostilities
Some Shawnee and Cherokee tribes attacked settlements, but the Native Americans suffered defeat. The Iroquois, like most tribes, followed policies of nonalignment.
Choosing Sides a.
Nova Scotia and the Caribbean
Nova Scotia and the British West Indies had economic reasons for supporting the British. b.
Patriots
Those who became active revolutionaries constituted about 40% of the population and came primarily from those who had dominated colonial society. c.
Loyalists (“Tories”)
About 20% of Americans recognized dangers in resistance and remained loyal to England. One thing that loyalists had in common was their opposition to men who became patriot leaders. d.
Neutrals
Another 40% chose to be neutral and, along with loyalists, suffered persecution at the hands of the patriots. e.
Slaves
Colonies with the highest percentages of African Americans expressed the lowest support for the revolution.
Slaves generally sought to escape their bondage by supporting the English. Lord Dunmore’s Proclamation offered freedom to slaves and indentured servants who left their patriot masters and joined the British forces. The fear of slave uprisings shaped events in the Caribbean and on the mainland. f.
Slavery and Revolutionary Fervor
Colonies with the highest percentages of African Americans expressed the lowest support for the revolution.
War and Independence a.
Battles of Lexington and Concord
General Thomas Gage moved to confiscate weapons the patriots held. Militiamen awaiting the British at Lexington and
Concord drove the troops back to Boston with heavy losses. b.
First Year of War
Both sides used a year-long lull in the fighting to plan their future strategies c.
British Strategy
British leaders assumed, erroneously, that the Americans would not stand up to professional troops, that the English could fight a conventional war, and that military victory would achieve the goal of retaining the colonies’ allegiance. d.
Second Continental Congress
The Second Continental Congress quickly moved to establish a viable government. One of its most important decisions resulted in the creation of the Continental Army and the subsequent appointment of its generals.
The Congress unanimously chose George Washington as commander-in-chief of the army.
George Washington, commander-in-chief of the army, had attributes essential to an American victory: moral integrity, physical stamina, and intense patriotism. e.
British Evacuation of Boston
The arrival of American cannon from Ticonderoga in March 1776 convinced Sir William Howe to evacuate Boston.

f.
Thomas Paine’s Common Sense
Thomas Paine stridently attacked English mistreatment of the colonies, and he unequivocally advocated creation of an independent republic. His popular pamphlet helped many Americans accept separation from Britain.
Congress began debate on Richard Henry Lee’s resolution calling for independence from England and directed a five-man committee to draft a declaration of independence. The committee assigned the task of writing the declaration to Thomas
Jefferson g.
Thomas Jefferson and the Declaration of Independence
Congress approved Thomas Jefferson’s Declaration of Independence, which contained a list of grievances against George III and a stirring statement of American political ideals.
VI.
The Long Struggle in the North a.
New York and New Jersey
The Americans faced potential disaster in defending New York. Although Washington deserted the city, he managed to hold the core of the army together.
British plundering of New Jersey rallied many reluctant Americans to the patriot cause and convinced Washington to strike.
Victories at Trenton and Princeton cheered American spirits as the army settled in for the winter. b.
Campaign of 1777
General John Burgoyne planned a three-pronged invasion of New York that required close cooperation between all commanders but gave Burgoyne the glory.
Ignoring Burgoyne’s plan and operating independently, Howe moved against Philadelphia in 1777, but logistical delays and
American resistance prevented him from gaining any real advantage when he captured the city in September.
General John Burgoyne suffered a disastrous defeat in 1777. He hoped to divide the colonies by marching through New York, but he was forced to surrender with 6,000 men near Saratoga on October 17. c.
Iroquois Confederacy Splinters
The Battle of Oriskany on August 6, 1777, revealed a split in the 300-year-old Iroquois Confederacy. Despite pledges of neutrality, several tribes supported the British; others fought for the Americans. d.
Franco-American Alliance of 1778
The victory at Saratoga led to French recognition of American independence, and a Treaty of Alliance brought France into the war in support of the new nation.
VII.
Life in the Army and on the Home Front a.
Continental Army
The Continental Army was made up primarily of young, single, and propertyless men who signed up for long periods or for the duration of the war. The army also included immigrants and, after Lord Dunmore’s proclamation, Congress decided to allow the enlistment of African Americans.
Women worked as cooks, nurses, and launderers for which they received rations and low wages. b.
Officer Corps
Officers developed a powerful sense of pride and commitment to the cause. c.
Hardship and Disease
Life in the American army was difficult for everyone, but enlisted men suffered more hardships than officers.
Diseases often spread through the army. In 1777, Washington ordered that the entire regular army and all new recruits be inoculated for smallpox. d.
Home Front
Women had to assume additional responsibilities to keep farms running during the war.
Americans had to endure shortages of necessities as well as severe inflation.
VIII.
Victory in the South a.
South Carolina and the Caribbean
Charleston fell in May 1780, but the English never really established control over South Carolina, and they remained vulnerable to the French navy. After 1778, the French navy picked off British Caribbean islands one by one . b.
Greene and the Southern Campaign
Nathanael Greene assumed command of American forces in South Carolina, and he instituted effective policies toward the
British, loyalists, and Indians. c.
Surrender at Yorktown
Lord Cornwallis led his troops into Virginia and encamped at Yorktown; American/French operations forced him to surrender.
As a result of Cornwallis’s surrender at Yorktown, the North ministry fell from power and Parliament voted to cease offensive operations and to authorize peace negotiations.
Washington defused the “Newburgh Conspiracy” and at wars’ end formally resigned his commission as commander-in-chief.
As a result of such actions, Washington established the precedent of civilian control of the American military.
Over 25,000 American men died in the war, the South’s economy was shattered, and indebtedness soared. d.
Treaty of Paris 1783
The war ended with a treaty signed on September 3, 1783. England recognized independence, accepted the Atlantic Ocean, the Mississippi River, Canada, and Florida as the American boundaries, and gave up fishing rights off of Newfoundland.