The Pax Romana
1.Augustus and the Principate
The Roman Peace
The Age of Augustus
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His victory over Antony leaves Octavian in complete control of the
empire and the armies
He inaugurates a transition to a new era.
The Roman Republic no longer exists (although he claims he
restored it);
Period of Augustus’ principate is well documented
Conditions After Octavian’s
Victory
The empire is economically exhausted;
widespread destruction
 Romans morally exhausted after almost
100 years of civil wars and want peace
 Look to Octavian/Augustus as the ‘saviour’
who would usher in a new Golden Age
 Octavian sole and supreme commander of
70 legions (ca. 420,000 troops).
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Octavian’s Challenge
 Has
to restore peace and stability.
 Reconstruct and demilitarize; Civil
wars have shown the
 Has to convince the Roman nobility
that he is not an autocrat; Romans
despised monarchy (c.f. Tiberius
Gracchus and Iulius Caesar)
Augustus
Assumes absolute power in the guise of Republican constitution; based on
auctoritas: held successive consulships
 28 BCE becomes Princeps Senatus
 January 27 BC given cognomen Augustus by Senate (increaser) which has
religious associations; title held by all successive emperors
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Full name: Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus Augustus.
Senate voted him proconsular imperium for 10 years over most
militarized provinces (Spain, Gaul, Syria, Egypt – Imperial provinces)
which he governed in absentia by legates; Imperial Provinces
Senate Senate remains in charge of “peaceful” provinces (Senatorial
provinces);
Receives from senate the power to pass laws without popular
ratification
Appearance of Republican system but dominated by Augustus’
auctoritas; Effectively a monarchy
Reforms and Revival
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Promises return to mos maiorum (custom of the
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Begins extensive religious revival;
Moral reforms (marriage legislation)
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ancestors)
Extensive reforms to the Army; no longer the army of
the Roman People, but his personal army (will be
discussed in detail in Thursday’s lecture)
Augustus’ perspective
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1.1 - “When I was nineteen years old, by my own deliberation and at my
own expense, I raised an army by which I brought the Republic, oppressed
by the domination of a faction, into a condition of freedom. For that reason
the senate by honorary decrees enrolled me into its order in the consulship
of Gaius Pansa and Aulus Hirtius, assigning me consular position to express
my opinion and giving me imperium. That the Republic should suffer no
harm it ordered me as propraetor, together with the consuls, to make
provisions. The people, moreover, in the same year made me consul when
both consuls had fallen in battle and also made me triumvir for the
constitution of the Republic. 2.1- Those who murdered my father I drove
into exile, by legal tribunals having avenged their crime, and afterwards
when they waged war against the Republic, I defeated them twice in
battle.” (Res Gestae Divi Augusti, 1.1. R. Sherk, 1988)
Tacitus’ evaluation
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“When after the destruction of Brutus and Cassius there was no longer any army of
the Commonwealth, when Pompeius was crushed in Sicily, and when, with Lepidus
pushed aside and Antonius slain, even the Julian faction had only Cæsar left to lead
it, then, dropping the title of triumvir, and giving out that he was a Consul, and was
satisfied with a tribune's authority for the protection of the people, Augustus won
over the soldiers with gifts, the populace with cheap corn, and all men with the
sweets of repose, and so grew greater by degrees, while he concentrated in himself
the functions of the Senate, the magistrates, and the laws. He was wholly
unopposed, for the boldest spirits had fallen in battle, or in the proscription, while the
remaining nobles, the readier they were to be slaves, were raised the higher by
wealth and promotion, so that, aggrandised by revolution, they preferred the safety
of the present to the dangerous past. Nor did the provinces dislike that condition of
affairs, for they distrusted the government of the Senate and the people, because of
the rivalries between the leading men and the rapacity of the officials, while the
protection of the laws was unavailing, as they were continually deranged by violence,
intrigue, and finally by corruption.” (Tacitus, Annals, 1.2,)
Pax Romana
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Pax – for Romans meant the absence of war
(not a peace treaty - foedus)
Closing doors of Temple of Janus in Roman
Forum signified that Rome was at peace
 Once in the Regal Period and once during the
Republican Period in 235 BCE
 Augustus prides himself in the Res Gestae to
have closed the doors of Janus
 More frequently in later Empire – but often
claims laid for propaganda purposes rather than
reflecting real peace conditions throughout the
Empire
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Augustus’ Accomplishements
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“The temple of Janus Qurinus, which our
ancestors desired to be closed whenever
peace with victory was secured by sea and
by land throughout the entire empire of
the Roman people, and which before I
was born is recorded to have been closed
only twice since the founding of the city,
was during my principate three times
ordered by the senate to be closed.
(Augustus, Res Gestae 13)
Pax Augustae
Augustus developed ideology of Pax
 Pax appears as personification in Augustan time
on the Ara Pacis (Altar of Peace) erected by
Augustus
 Ideology of Peace echoed in Augustan Poet
Vergil’s epic poem the Aeneid:
 “you, Roman, be sure to rule the world (be
these your arts), to crown peace with justice, to
spare the vanquished and to crush the proud.”
(Vergil, Aeneid, Book 6. 852)
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Rome brings civilization:
peace and law
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Others will cast more tenderly in bronze their
breathing figure, I can well believe, and bring
more lifelike portraits out of marble; argue more
eloquently, use the pointer to trace the paths of
heavens more accurately and more accurately
foretell the rising stars. Roman, remember by
your strength to rule Earth’s people – for your
arts are to be these: to pacify, to impose the
rule of law, to spare the conquered, battle down
the proud. Vergil, Aeneid 6.847-53 (in
Burns,p.10)
The Ara Pacis (Altar of Peace)
The Iconography of Peace
the ‘Roman Peace’, according to
Calgacus
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A speech put in the mouth of British rebel Calgacus:
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“To us who dwell on the uttermost confines of the earth and of
freedom, this remote sanctuary of Britain’s glory has up to this time
been a defence. Now, however, the furthest limits of Britain are
thrown open, and the unknown always passes for the marvellous.
But there are no tribes beyond us, nothing indeed but waves and
rocks, and the yet more terrible Romans, from whose oppression
escape is vainly sought by obedience and submission. Robbers of
the world, having by their universal plunder exhausted the land,
they rifle the deep. If the enemy be rich, they are rapacious; if he
be poor, they lust for dominion; neither the east nor the west has
been able to satisfy them. Alone among men they covet with equal
eagerness poverty and riches. To robbery, slaughter, plunder, they
give the lying name of empire; they make a solitude and call it
peace. “ (Tacitus, The Agricola 30)
Pax Romana
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Aim was to ensure safety and stability of Empire; keep law and
order in the provinces;
Empire made of variety of different political entities Roman
provinces, Client states, independent city states
Rome granted local autonomy, provided protection, provided safety
of trading routes in exchange for: 1. Tribute. 2. Loyalty to Rome
and its interests. 3. supply of military manpower; local elite tied by
personal ties to Rome
Romans respected local cultures and customs and religions
Romanization process not enforced – cultural assimilation went both
ways
For most living in the Empire life under Roman control not very
different from life before Roman control
Ulpian on The Pax Romana
Ulpian 1.18.6 & 13 on the Role of a Good Governor
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“The governor of a province should prevent illegal requisitions,
especially those made with violence, and sales and financial
obligations extorted through fear, or where money is not paid. The
governor should also see to it that no one unjustly makes a profit or
suffers a loss….It pertains to the honorable reputation of the
governor of a province that more powerful men do not injure the
more humble, and that their supporters do not harass the innocent
with false accusations. The governor should take care to prevent
unauthorized staff members from proceeding to threaten people
under the pretext of assisting military officials, and to punish them
when they are caught. He should also prevent illegal exactions from
being made under the pretext of collecting tax and tribute….The
governor shall see to it that persons of limited resources are not
injured by having their only lamp and or small supply of furniture
taken from them for the use of others, under the pretext of the
arrival of officers or soldiers.
Ulpian continued
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The governor should see to it that nothing is done, in
the name of the military, which does not actually pertain
to the benefit of all the soldiers in common, but which is
done by those who unjustly claim advantage for
themselves alone. It is proper for a good and
conscientious governor to take care that the province
which he governs is peaceful and quiet. He will
accomplish this without difficulty if he works carefully to
hunt down bad men and free the province of them; for
he must hunt down sacrilegious persons, robbers,
kidnappers and thieves, and punish each according to
his crime, and apprehend those who harbor criminals,
for without them a robber cannot remain concealed for
long.”
Tacitus on the Benefits of Roman Rule:
Speech by Petilius Cerialis to the Gauls (70 CE)
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“Tyranny and war always existed in Gaul until you yielded to our
authority. And we, although we have been provoked many times,
have imposed upon you by right of conquest only this one demand:
that you pay the costs of keeping peace here. For peace among
different people cannot be maintained without troops, and troops
cannot be maintained without pay, and pay cannot be found without
taxation. In other respects we are equals. You yourselves often
command our legions and govern this and other provinces. You are
in no respect excluded or shut out. Although you live far from Rome,
you enjoy as much as we do the benefits of praiseworthy emperors;
on the other hand, the cruel emperors threaten most those closest
to them. You must resign yourselves to the extravagance and greed
of your masters just resign yourself to barren years or excessive
rains or any other natural disaster. As long as there are men, there
will be vices. But they are not everlasting, and they balanced by
intervals of better government.
Tacitus continued
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Perhaps you expect a milder type of government if Tutor or
Classicus assume power? Perhaps you think that they can equip
armies to repel the Germans and the Britons for less tribute than
you now pay us? But of the Romans are driven out – may the gods
forbid! – what situation could exist except wars among all these
races? The structure of our empire as been consolidated by 800
years of good fortune and strict organization, and it cannot be torn
apart without destroying those who tear it apart. And you especially
will run the greatest risk, for you have gold and natural resources,
which are the chief causes of war. Therefore love and cherish peace
and the city of Rome which you and I have, conquered and
conqueror, hold with equal rights. Let these examples of good
fortune and bad fortune warn you not to prefer rebellion and ruin to
submission and safety.” (Tacitus, Histories 4.74.)
Living under Roman Rule:
Plutarch, Precepts of Statecraft, 10, 17
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“Nowadays, then, when the affairs of cities no longer include
leadership in wars, nor the overthrowing of tyrannies, nor acts of
alliances, what opening for a conspicuous and public career could
one find? There remain the public lawsuits and embassies to the
emperor, which demand a man of ardent temperament and one who
possesses both courage and intellect. But there are many excellent
lines of endeavor that are neglected in our cities, which a man may
take up, and also many practices resulting from evil custom that
insinuated themselves to the shame or injury of the city, which a
man may remove, and thus turn them to account for himself…You
who hold office are a subject, ruling a state controlled by proconsuls
and by procurators of the emperor…Do not have great pride or
confidence in your crown [of office], for you see soldiers’ boots just
above your head…
Plutarch ..continued
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Officials in the cities, when they foolishly urge the people to imitate
the deeds, ideal, and actions of their ancestors, however unsuitable
they might be in the present times and conditions, stir up the
common folk, and, though what they do is laughable, what is done
to them is no laughing matter, except when they are treated with
utter contempt…And not only should the statesmen show himself
and his native state blameless toward our rulers, but he should
always have, as a firm bulwark, so to speak, of his administration, a
friend among the men of high station who have the greatest power;
for the Romans themselves are most eager to promote the political
interests of their friends.”
The Local Elite and Rome
Romans avoided force wherever possible, but were
extremely brutal and inhumane when they used it.
 Citizenship: local ruling aristocracy were integrated into
Roman ruling elite; Roman citizenship conferred on all
decurions (local magistrates, members of local
senates/town councils);
 Types of Roman citizenship: Greater Latin Right (Latinum
Maius) established by Hadrian;
 The Emperor Caracalla in 212 CE granted citizenship to
all free-born inhabitants of the Roman Empire:
Constitutio Antoniniana (
 Public benefactions for their loyalty conferred on
members of local elite.
 Close ties to Rome (i.e. centre of power) raised
status/prestige of local elite
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Client Kingdoms
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“The Marcomannians and the Quadians down
to our time still had native kings, of the noble
line of Maroboduus and Tudrus; now they
accept even foreign kings, but the power and
sovereignty of the kings stem from Roman
authority. On occasion they are aided by our
armed forces, more often subsidies, but their
domestic power is not thereby reduced.”
(Cassius Dio 40.8.3.)
Patrons and Clients:
North Africa (55 CE)
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“In the consulship of Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus
Germanicus and Lucius Antistius Vetus, August 1, Quintus
Julius Secundus son of Quintus, of the Qurinbe tribe, legate
with the rank of praetor, contracted a patronage relationship
with the decurions and citizens of the colony Julia Augusta
Tupusuctu, [composed of veterans] of Legion VII, and
received them under his protection and patronage for himself,
his children, and their descendants. Done by the envoys
Quintus Caecilius Firmanus son of Quintus, of the Palatine
tribe, and Marcus Pomponius Vindex son of Marcus, of the
Quirine tribe.” (CIL 8.8.837)
Close Personal Ties Between Romans and Provincials:
Vespasian Addresses the Legions and People of Syria (69 CE)
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“Then he entered the theatre at Antioch, where the people regularly hold
their public assemblies, and addressed the crowd which hurried there, and
expressed itself in extravagant adulation. His speech was graceful enough
although he spoke in Greek, for he knew how to give a certain air to all he
said and did. There was nothing that angered the province and the army so
much as the assertion of Mucianus that Vitellius had decided to transfer the
legions of Germany to Syria, where they could enjoy a profitable and easy
service, while in exchange he would assign to the troops in Syria the wintry
climate and the laborious duties of Germany. For the provincials were
accustomed to live with the soldiers, and enjoyed association with them; in
fact, many civilians were bound to the soldiers by ties of friendship and of
marriage, and the soldiers from their long service had come to love their old
familiar camps as their very hearths and homes.” (Tacitus, Histories 2.7980)
Integrating Romans and Provincials:
Speech by Petilius Cerialis to the Gauls (70 CE)
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“Tyranny and war always existed in Gaul until you yielded to our
authority. And we, although we have been provoked many times,
have imposed upon you by right of conquest only this one demand:
that you pay the costs of keeping peace here. For peace among
different people cannot be maintained without troops, and troops
cannot be maintained without pay, and pay cannot be found without
taxation. In other respects we are equals. You yourselves often
command our legions and govern this and other provinces. You are
in no respect excluded or shut out. Although you live far from Rome,
you enjoy as much as we do the benefits of praiseworthy emperors;
on the other hand, the cruel emperors threaten most those closest
to them. You must resign yourselves to the extravagance and greed
of your masters just as you resign yourself to barren years or
excessive rains or any other natural disaster. As long as there are
men, there will be vices. But they are not everlasting, and they
balanced by intervals of better government.
Tacitus continued

Perhaps you expect a milder type of government if Tutor or
Classicus assume power? Perhaps you think that they can equip
armies to repel the Germans and the Britons for less tribute than
you now pay us? But if the Romans are driven out – may the gods
forbid! – what situation could exist except wars among all these
races? The structure of our empire has been consolidated by 800
years of good fortune and strict organization, and it cannot be torn
apart without destroying those who tear it apart. And you especially
will run the greatest risk, for you have gold and natural resources,
which are the chief causes of war. Therefore love and cherish peace
and the city of Rome which you and I have, conquered and
conqueror, hold with equal rights. Let these examples of good
fortune and bad fortune warn you not to prefer rebellion and ruin to
submission and safety.” (Tacitus, Histories 4.74.)
Dio’s Assessment of the Edict of Caracalle
of 212 CE
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“Now this great admirer of Alexander, Antoninus, was
fond of spending money upon the soldiers, great
numbers of whom he kept in attendance upon him,
alleging one excuse after another and one war after
another; but he made it his business to strip, despoil,
and grind down all the rest of mankind, and the senators
by no means least. In the first place, there were the gold
crowns that he was repeatedly demanding, on the
constant pretext that he had conquered some enemy or
other; and I am not referring, either, to the actual
manufacture of the crowns — for what does that amount
to? — but to the vast amount of money constantly being
given under that name by the cities for the customary
"crowning", as it is called, of the emperors.
Dio …. Continued
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Then there were the provisions that we were required to furnish in
great quantities on all occasions, and this without receiving any
remuneration and sometimes actually at additional cost to ourselves
all of which supplies he either bestowed upon the soldiers or else
peddled out; and there were the gifts which he demanded from the
wealthy citizens and from the various communities; and the taxes,
but the new ones which he promulgated and the ten per cent tax
that he instituted in place of the five per cent tax applying to the
emancipation of slaves, to bequests, and to all legacies; for he
abolished the right of succession and exemption from taxes which
had been granted in such cases to those who were closely related to
the deceased. This was the reason why he made all the people in
his empire Roman citizens; nominally he was honouring them, but
his real purpose was to increase his revenues by this means,
inasmuch as aliens did not have to pay most of these taxes.” (Dio.
78.9.1-5.)
Bringing Roman Justice to the
Barbarians
Romanization
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the adoption of Roman cultural practices -more prominent in the
western Empire than in the east; Eastern Mediterranean cultures
ancient and sophisticated;
Western regions (Spain, Gaul, etc., much less urbanized, tribal
cultures)
NOT a policy of Romans to ‘Romanize’ barbarians culturally
Barbarians influenced by constant presence of Roman life: settled
life in cities with organized infrastructure: sanitation, water, baths,
market places, political organization;
The mechanisms Spreading
Roman Culture
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Coloniae
Roman citizen communities
Grant of Latin and Roman citizenship status
Urbanization
Imperial Cult
Latin Language
Roman Law
Slavery, manumission; seviri
Roman Games
Trade
The Army
The Roman Army as a Romanizing
Agent
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Roman army important instrument in Romanizing barbarians.
Provided examples of discipline, organization, training, expertise in
engineering, architecture, technology, medicine, cuisine,
Roman military forts required supplies, attracted merchants,
fostered prosperity,
Roman soldiers frequently formed relationships with local women
Barbarians could serve in Auxiliary Forces and received Roman
citizenship at end of service (after 26 years)
Auxiliary Forces were normally posted far away from their origins;
served to internationalize the Roman Empire
At same time Romans were influenced by barbarian cultures;
particularly evident in Religion
Urbanization in the West
Establishment of urban communities central to Romanization
process in the west.
 Urban centers developed out of 1. existing native towns. 2.
military camps. 3. Colonies.
 Presence of Roman legionaries and colonists facilitated the
spread of the Latin language and culture.
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