UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI
FACULTY OF ARTS
COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIAL WORK
Cash transfer and its impact on the Welfare of the elderly in Kenya: A
case of the Government of Kenya’s Older Persons Cash Transfer
Programme in Makueni County
BY;
NAME: EMILY JEPKOECH KIMOSOP
REG NO. C50/73144/2009
M.A (SOCIOLOGY)
A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED FOR EXAMINATION IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF
THE DEGREE OF MASTERS OF ARTS (SOCIOLOGY)
November, 2013
.
i
DECLARATION
I declare that this is my original work and has not been submitted to any Institution or University for
academic crediting.
Emily JepkoechKimosop
Reg. No……………………………………
Signature………………………………... Date……………………………………………..
This Project Paper has been submitted for examination with approval as University of Nairobi
Supervisor;
Dr. Robinson M. Ocharo
Signature…………………………………………
Date………………………………………………
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My due appreciation goes to my Project Supervisor Dr. Ocharo for his immense support and able
guidance till the completion of my Project paper.
Secondly, to Mr. MwakioRigha, the Director for Gender and Social Development for allowing
me to undertake my research on the Older Persons Cash Transfer Programme which is
implemented under his Department.
To Emmanuel Simiyu the Coordinator for Gender and Social Development, MakueniCounty
andBenedettaMwema, the District Gender and Social Development Makueni for their immense
support especially in providing information about the programme at the County level.
To my competent team of enumerators: RodahNtuka, Daniel Nzau and Daniel Mulitu for doing a
wonderful job of data collection.
Finally to my loving Spouse, Edwin Kiplagat, for supporting my Masters education financially.
To my late Father Jonathan KimosopChebii whose proverbial words of encouragement gave me
the inspiration to work hard. Finally, to my dear mum Anne Kimosop for her financial support
and encouragements throughout my years of study.
Thank you all.
© 2013
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DEDICATION
To all those who labor in meeting the welfare needs of the elderly
iii
ACRONYMS
AU
-African Union
CBOS
-Community Based Organizations
GOK
- Government t of Kenya
HAI
-HelpAge International
HIV/AIDs
-Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired immune Deficiency
Virus
CT
-Cash Transfer
CT-OVC
-Cash Transfer for Orphaned and Vulnerable Children
KIBHS
- Kenya Integrated Budget household survey
MOGCSD
-Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Development
NGOS
-Non-governmental Organizations
NHIF
-National Hospital Insurance Fund
NSSF
-National Social Security fund
OPCT
- Older Person’s Cash Transfer Programme
ROK
- Republic of Kenya
SAPs
-Structural Adjustment Programmes
SP
- Social Protection
UN
-United Nations
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ABSTRACT
This paper assessed the impact of cash transfer on the welfare of the elderly above 65 yearsand
their household by establishing: how cash transfer is delivered to beneficiaries; some of the
challenges faced by the older person in accessing the stipend or as are result of being a recipient
of cash transfer programmeand finally on the impact of the cash transfer programmeon the socioeconomic welfare of the older person and that of their households.
The research adopted a survey design. Sampling was done using proportionate sampling. Both
primary and secondary data collection methods were used. Primary data source employed the use
of interview schedule, key informant’s interview and observation. Secondary data was obtained
through requesting for already stored data from the Department of Gender and Social
Development of beneficiaries that were enrolled to the cash transfer programmein 2009. Data
was analyzed descriptively using Statistical Package for Social Scientists. Presentation was done
using graphs pie charts and diagrams.
The findings revealed that the fund is disbursed from the Ministry of Gender Children and Social
Development (MOGCSD) through PCK which is the sole disbursement agent of the cash transfer
then to the PCK branches to undertake payment of beneficiaries. Some older persons were found
to face challenges of distance which had implications in the cost of accessing the fund. Likewise
the fund was found to be sometimes irregular. It was further seen to impact on food security,
household assets (livestock), shelter, health, clothing, access to goods and services on credit and
ability to join social groups.
Based on the significant impact of the programme on the welfare of the older person and that of
their households, the research recommends an enhancement on coverage to reach to all
vulnerable older persons of Kenya. To mitigate the challenges emanating from being a
beneficiary of the cash transfer programme, this paper recommends to the relevant government
agency to devise strategies of ensuring that the fund reach to beneficiaries timely and predictable
basis, and subsequently to explore more means of disbursing the stipendto reduce the cost of
collecting cash transfer fund by beneficiaries.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ................................................................................................................................... i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................................. ii
DEDICATION ..................................................................................................................................... iii
ACRONYMS ....................................................................................................................................... iv
ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................................................... v
TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................................................... vi
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 10
1.0 Background ............................................................................................................................... 10
1.1 Problem statement ..................................................................................................................... 14
1.2 Research questions .................................................................................................................... 15
1.3 Broad objectives of the study .................................................................................................... 15
1.3.1 Specific objectives of the study .......................................................................................... 15
1.4 Scope and Limitations of the study ........................................................................................... 16
1.5 Operational definition of terms ................................................................................................. 17
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................................................... 18
2.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 18
2.1 Challenges faced by the elderly ................................................................................................ 18
2.2 Welfare needs for the elderly Older persons ............................................................................. 20
2.3 Social protection ........................................................................................................................ 20
2.3.1 Social protection policy measures ...................................................................................... 22
2.4 International and Regional Policy and legal Frameworks of social protection for the elderly . 22
2.4.1 Universal declaration of human rights- 1948 ..................................................................... 22
2.4.2. Madrid International Plan of Action on Ageing (MIPAA)-2002 ...................................... 23
2.4.3 Livingstone call for action-2006......................................................................................... 23
2.5 Existing Social Protection legal and policy frameworks and programme Interventions for the
elderly in Kenya .............................................................................................................................. 24
2.5.1 The constitution of Kenya, 2010 ........................................................................................ 24
2.5.2 National Policy on Older Persons and Ageing ................................................................... 24
2.5.3 Kenya’s National Social Protection Policy ........................................................................ 25
2.5.4 Kenya Vision 2030 ............................................................................................................. 25
2.5.5 Pension schemes ................................................................................................................. 26
2.5.6 National social Security fund ............................................................................................. 26
2.5.7 The National Hospital Insurance fund ................................................................................ 26
2.5.8 Non-governmental organizations ....................................................................................... 27
2.5.9 The family........................................................................................................................... 27
2.6. Institutionalization of the old ................................................................................................... 27
2.7 Understanding cash transfers. ................................................................................................... 28
2.7.1 Empirical literature on cash transfers programmes for the elderly .................................... 29
2.8 Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................................. 32
2.9.1 Maslow’s theory of needs ................................................................................................... 32
2.9.2 Motivation Theory. ............................................................................................................. 34
2.10 Conceptual framework ............................................................................................................ 35
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ..................................................................... 36
3.1 Site selection and description .................................................................................................... 36
3.1.2 Description of the OPCT programme ................................................................................. 37
3.2 Target population ...................................................................................................................... 38
3.3 Unit of analysis.......................................................................................................................... 38
3.4 Sampling design and sample population. .................................................................................. 38
3.5 Type of data ............................................................................................................................... 39
3.6 Data collection methods. ........................................................................................................... 40
3.7 Pilot Study ................................................................................................................................. 41
3.7 Data analysis ............................................................................................................................. 41
3.8 Ethical Consideration ................................................................................................................ 42
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS AND INTEPRETATION OF FINDINGS ......................... 43
4.1. Demographic characteristics of respondents ............................................................................ 44
4.1.1 Distribution of respondents by location.............................................................................. 44
4.1.2 Gender distribution of the respondents. .............................................................................. 45
4.1.3 Age Distribution of respondents. ........................................................................................ 46
4.1.4 Marital status of respondents. ............................................................................................. 48
4.1.5 Education level of respondents ........................................................................................... 49
4.1.6 Main occupation of respondent .......................................................................................... 50
4.1.7 Economic Status of households .......................................................................................... 51
4.2 How cash transfer flow from the ministry to the beneficiaries in Makueni County ................. 51
4.3 Challenges faced by older persons in accessing and as beneficiaries of cash transfer ............. 54
4.3.1 Regularity of the cash Transfer Stipend ............................................................................. 55
4.3.2 Hostility from the community or household members for being a beneficiary.................. 55
4.3.3 Distance from pay point ..................................................................................................... 56
4.4 Impact of cash transfer programme on the welfare of the elderly and their households. ......... 57
4.4.1 Other sources of income of the household other than from cash transfer. ......................... 58
4.4.2 Uses and prioritization of the use of cash transfer by beneficiary household. ................... 59
4.4.3 Findings on impact of Cash transfers on the welfare of the elderly and their households. 61
5.0 CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................... 79
5.1 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................... 79
5.2 Recommendations of the study ................................................................................................. 80
5.3 Recommendations for further research ..................................................................................... 81
List of Table Charts and Graphs
Table 1: Makueni County, Constituency Level poverty prevalence……………………………..
36
Table 2: Geographical distribution of beneficiaries in OPCT programme in Makueni County
-2009…………………………………………………………………………………………
37
Table 3: Proportionate distribution of sample population per location and sex……………….
39
Table 4: Geographical Distribution of Respondents per Location…………………………….
44
Chart 1: Gender Distribution of respondents………………………………………………….
45
Table 5: Age Distribution of respondents……………………………………………………..
46
Graph 1: Marital status of respondents…………………………………………………………
48
Table 6: Education level of respondents-2012…………………………………………………
50
Graph2: Economic status of the household…………………………………………………….
51
Table 7: Regularity of receiving cash transfer by older persons………………………………
55
Table 8: Incidence of hostility from the community and or relatives to the beneficiary older person2012…………………………………………………………………………………………….
56
Table 9. Table showing amount of transport to the paypoint-2012……………………………
57
Graph 3: Mean income from other Sources -2012……………………………………………...
58
Table 10: Uses of cash transfer by beneficiaries……………………………………………….
59
Table 11: Prioritization of the use of cash transfer by beneficiary households……………….
59
Graph 4. Number of meals per day by beneficiary households……………………………….
62
Table 12: Nutrition of respondent’s households-2012………………………………………..
64
Graph 5: Number of Livestock owned……………………………………………………….
65
Graph 6: Major construction material -2009………………………………………………….
67
Graph 7: Major construction material -2012………………………………………………….
67
Table 13: Health conditions as rated by of respondents-2012………………………………..
69
Chart 2: Access of goods and services on credit by beneficiary households………………......
73
Graph 8: Approximation in percentage of source of money used to settle debt from
goods and services bought on credit-2012………………………………………………………
73
Chart 3: Beneficiaries who joined social groups since enrolment into the cash
transfer programme-2012………………………………………………………………………
74
Graph 9: Coping mechanisms of households (%) when cash transfer programme is
Withdrawn-2012……………………………………………………………………………..
75
Annexes
Annex I: Photo gallery of respondents…………………………………………………….
82
Annex: II: Interview.schedule...............................................................................................
84
Annex III: Key Informants’ interview guide for the District Gender and Social Development
Officer……………………………………………………………………………………..
91
Annex IV: Targeting and Registration tool for the OPCT programme………………………
92
Reference…………………………………………………………………………………
102
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.0 Background
The population of older person’s throughout the world is increasing at a rapid rate. It was
about 200 million in 1950, rose to 606 million in 2000 and is expected to reach the two
billion mark by 2050. The most rapid increase is taking place in the developing world,
with Africa alone projected to have between 205 and 212 million older persons by the
year 2050. (MOGCSD, 2009)
Kenya has a total population of 38,610,097 and that of the elderly above 65 years is
1,332,000 (KNBS, 2010). According to Kenya Integrated Household Budget Survey
(KIHBS) of 2005/2007, approximately46 percent of Kenya’s population is said to be
poor (KNBS, 2007). The poverty rate of older persons of 60 years and above is 56.4 %
(MOGCSD, 2011) The level of vulnerability of older persons to poverty is high
considering the fact their aging bodies become frail making them less able to work and
meet their own needs.
According to Harris and Maloney (1999) older adults are more different than alike,
physically and psychologically, they age at different rates and what is true of one 70 year
old may not be true of the other. Some may be old in 55 and others young at 80 years. A
persons health outlook on life and agility often affects how old or young one feels. Most
government policies give certain ages to mark the beginning of old age. Kenya’s National
Policy on Older Persons and Ageing puts it at 60 years (MOGCSD, 2009). This age is
equally set by UN and AU as the starting age for the elderly. This is also the age at which
formal employment in Kenya is officially terminated. ‘In colonial America, old people
were expected to remain working until they were physically unable to do so’ (Foner,
1986).
The challenge of old age drives the older person into poverty. Poverty in old age is the
inability of old persons to access basic needs that sustains household livelihoods.
According to RBA (2008), a person is considered poor if his or her consumption or
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income level falls below some minimum level necessary to meet basic needs. Poverty
affects the welfare of the older person in that they are deprived of their livelihoods. They
may not meet the threshold of nutrition, shelter, clothing, health. Lack/limited income
deny the elderly other services as leisure.
However, some writers argue that every stage is developmental and even old age comes
with its opportunities. Papalia et al (2002:29) divided human lifespan and human history
into three ages. The third and final stage which they say starts at sixty, present the stage
as a period with less external pressure and more internal development, a time for giving
back to society the lessons, resources and experiences accumulated and articulated over a
lifetime. It is developmental in the sense that such experience could be counted as a
resource to be utilized in the society. Foner (1986:106) opines that as people grow older,
they accumulate knowledge experience and social relationships and such intimate
knowledge of people and customs equipped them to settle local disputes and often
replaced other activities that had to be given up. However the role of the elderly in
decision making which has been common in traditional societies has almost been
overtaken by the effects of modernity and urbanization
In Kenya, the implementation of social protection initiatives has been informed by both
international and local experiences. Kenya is a signatory to the Copenhagen Declaration
of 1995 which urged heads of states to ensure that national budgets and policies are
oriented as necessary to meeting the basic needs, reducing inequalities and targeting
poverty as a strategic objective.
Kenya ratified the Universal Declaration on Human Rights which states that Social
Protection is a fundamental human right for all citizens -Articles 22- 26 specifically focus
on social protection. The Commission for African Union identified social transfers as a
key tool in tackling extreme poverty in sub-Sahara Africa. Kenya is a signatory to the
Livingston Declarations of 2006 which committed Governments under the auspices of
African Union (AU) to improve on the implementation of Social Protection Programme.
In the Livingstone Call for Action, the African Governments then agreed to integrate
social transfers within the National Development Plans and Budgets within the next 2 – 3
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years after the 2006 meeting. In addition, Kenya’s Vision 2030 recognizes older persons
as one of the vulnerable groups to be targeted in the Social Pillar through various
programmes to ensure equity in power and resource distribution with the view of
improving their lives. Article 57 of the Constitution of Kenya 2010 provides a legal
frameworkin regard to the elderly. There is also a National Policy on older Person’s and
Ageing in place that gives a broad overview of the situations of the elderly and the
strategies of addressing these issues.
Kenya started a cash transfer programme for the elderly known as the Older Persons Cash
Transfer Programme (OPCT) in the year 2007 for older persons with 65 years and above.
The programme was piloted under the Rapid Result Initiative Programmes of the
MOGCD in 2007 in Nyando, Busia and Thika and the beneficiaries at this phase were
300. It was up scaled to 33,000 beneficiaries in financial year 2009/2010. In financial
year 2011/2012 the number was further scaled up to 36,036 with a monthly stipend of
KES 2,000.
The overall objective of the programme is to strengthen the capacities of older persons
and improve their livelihood while alleviating integrated poverty through sustainable
social protection mechanisms. Its specific objectives are; to provide regular and
predictable cash transfer to vulnerable older persons in identified households and to build
capacities of beneficiaries in order to improve their livelihoods.
The concept of cash transfer as a social protection mechanism is not new in Kenya.
Besides OPCT, the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Development also
implements other CT programmes which include: a Conditional Cash Transfer for
Orphaned and vulnerable Children programme (CT- OVC). The CT-OVC targets
household with orphaned and vulnerable children It is aimed at enhancing school
retention and reducing school drop outs among school going children of the beneficiary
households. Another CT programmeimplemented by the MOGCSD targets Persons with
Severe disabilities from poor and vulnerable households. The Ministry of Special
Programmes coordinates aHungerSafety Net Programme (HSNP) which was piloted in
2007 in four ASAL Districts of: Wajir, Mandera, Turkana and Marsabit.
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Latin America Countries like Brazil, Bolivia among others have targeted cash transfers
for its vulnerable groups. Brazil for instance has a well-targeted Cash transfer programme
for poor elderly. Brazil’s Continuous Cash Benefits Programme is an unconditional cash
transfer to the elderly or to extremely poor individuals with disabilities whose per capita
income is less that a quarter of the minimum wage (approximately one US dollar). The
value of the transfer is equivalent to a monthly minimum wage which is approximately 4
US dollars (Soares et al, 2006). Kenya’s OPCT monthly stipend was until June, 2011
fixed at 1,500 per month. This figure was approximately equal to the Urban Food Poverty
level (Kshs 1,474Ksh) and the Rural Basic Needs Poverty levels of Kshs 1,562
(MOGCSD, 2011).Countries of Africa like South Africa, Malawi and Zambia among
others do give social transfers to their vulnerable groups. Lesotho for instance has a
universal cash transfer for older persons of 70 years and above.
The reasons for espousing cash transfers as interventions of poverty reduction as opposed
to other forms like food subsidies and other forms of in kind support are that; cash
transfers are easy to administer, they can reach the poor effectively, they promote
development outcomes as beneficiaries can engage in micro financial activities,
transferring money is cheaper than transferring in kind materials (Republic of Kenya,
2009). The effectiveness of the cash transfer as an intervention model for the poor
depends on the effectiveness of the cash delivery mechanism.
Cash Transfer are mainly predictable and being so older persons are able to plan on how
they will spend. Kenya’s OPCT and CT-OVC are paid once in every two months,
meaning in every payment, persons in programme are assured of receiving KShs 4,000.
An evaluative research done on older persons and their right to work showed that older
persons are ‘enabled to plan ahead, buy food and pay bills, pay for treatments and even
invest in small scale income generation activities (Gorman et al 2010:12) when they are
recipients of cash transfers.
However, the adoption of cash transfer and other social protection assistance programmes
are mostly criticized by politicians and economists on the basis of placing a strain on the
economy. In many cases the challenge has been whether such programmes are
financeable and or sustainable. It is often viewed as a strain on the part of the tax payer.
13
(Papalia 2002:28) argued about welfare programmes for retirees that Planners and
Politicians in almost all industrialized nations fear that the cost of supporting a growing
contingent of retirees will place an insupportable burden on a shrinking group of working
adults
1.1 Problem statement
There has been a progressive increase in cash transfer fund for older persons in Kenya
and a subsequent increase in the number of older persons in OPCT programme since its
inception in 2007. The assumption this paper made was that GOK could have found cash
transfers a good instrument in improving the welfare of Kenya’s older persons. The paper
therefore sought to establish the impact of OPCT programme on the welfare of the
elderly above 65 years and their household in Kenya specifically in Makueni County.
GOK through the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Development started a cash
transfer programme for the elderly piloted under Rapid Results Initiative (RRI) activities
of the MOGCSD of 2007. At the pilot phase, the number of beneficiaries was 300 in
three districts: Nyando, Busia and Thika, each of the three Districts was awarded a quota
of 100 older persons. In 2009, the programme was scaled up to 33,000 in 44 Districts and
in financial year 2011/2012 slightly rose to 36,036 older persons (MOGCSD, 2011).
According to the programme, the progressive increase in budgeting has enhanced the
number of older persons benefiting from OPCTprogramme.
Cash transfers are advanced to the elderly because they are part of the poor and
vulnerable constituents of the population. This is exacerbated by the fact that as people
age their physiological processes decline leading to general deterioration on health.
Diseases such as hypertension, arthritis and heart diseases are associated with older
cohorts (Morgan and Kunkel, 2001). Most health insurance schemes terminate services
upon retirement; old persons are burdened with complications of health and most of their
assets may be used in meeting health needs (Gondi, 2009). Health problems coupled with
frailty render the elderly unable to carry out the activities of daily living. Older persons
with cumulative assets may not be able to manage them (Gondi, 2009). The assets may
be squandered by those obliged to manage. The situation is even worse for older women
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who face many socio-cultural barriers and discriminatory treatment during their lifetime
(Sobleszczyk, Nodel and Chayovan, 2002). These are the issues that affect the overall
welfare of the older person.
Persons entering old age in poverty are likely to remain poor as chances of improvement
in poverty level diminish with age. It is also difficult for older persons to recover from
shocks of loss of property; a case example is the 2008 post-election violence in which
older persons have had testimonies of their inability to re-accumulate the same amount of
wealth that they had before the violence erupted. Most loaning institutions deny older
persons the chance to access business loans (Cawthorne, 2008)
Studies have shown a link between cash transfer in meeting the welfare needs of the
elderly. The study would therefore seek to find out if cash transfers in Makueni County
are of any impact to the welfare of older persons in OPCT programme including that of
their households.
1.2Research questions
The research focused on the following questions;
1. How does cash transfer reach older persons in programme?
2. What challenges do older persons face in accessing cash transfer fund?
3. What are the socio-economic impacts of cash transfer on the welfare of older
persons and that of their households?
1.3Broad objectives of the study
The study aimed at establishing the impact of cash transfer on the welfare of the elderly
enrolled in OPCT programmeand their households in Makueni County.
1.3.1 Specific objectives of the study
The study sought to;
1. Find out how cash transfer reach older persons in programme in Makueni County
2. Identify the challenges older persons faced in accessing the fund.
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3. Establish the socio-economic impacts of Cash transfers on the welfare of the
elderly and that of their households.
1.4Scope and Limitationsof the study
The study sought to find out how cash transfer stipend is transferred to the household
from the highest level structure that is the ministry of Gender Children and Social
Development up to the ultimate beneficiaries who are older person in OPCT programme.
It also examined the players involved in the delivery process. The research therefore
limited itself to delivery process of OPCT cash transfer from the MOGCSD to the point
where beneficiaries receive their transfer.
The challenges the older person encounters while accessing the fund were also be
assessed with limited focus to: frequency of receiving payment, issues of distance and
aggressions associated with the fund by the household members and community.
The study examined uses of the fund by the older person’s household. Specific focus was
on socio-economic uses of the fund such as: food, health, improvement of
dwellings/shelter, education of grandchildren in the household and leisure activities.
Other sources of income, besides cash transfer were assessed in order to ascertain the
impact cash transfers has had in the household. It therefore examined other pertinent
sources such as: income from: agriculture, own business, remittances from relatives, farm
produce and donations of cash or in kind materials from well-wishers.
The study was based in Makueni County. Particularly; Waia, Kivani, Athi and Kitise
Locations. The choice of Makueni is because The Kenya Household Data survey of
2005/2006 ranked it as among the poor in Eastern Province. The choice of the four
locations was because they were the only locations which rolled out the programme in
2009 in the county. Research findings are limited to Makueni County.
Older persons above 65 years and above were the focus of study and excluded by the
formal pension scheme as a result of lack of a prior formal employment. This is because
the programme enrolls persons who are at least 65 years and do not receive pension.
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1.5Operational definition of terms
Older Person- The older person’s Policy defines it as any person above 60 years. For
purposes of this study, an older person refers to a person above 65 years and a beneficiary
of OPCT programme.
Welfare- A state of being able to meet basic household needs e.g. food, shelter, clothing,
medical care, education and leisure.
Impact- Is a lasting and or significant effect of an intervention on intended targets.
Target in this case is an older person receiving cash transfer from the government.
Older person in OPCT programme: Older persons enrolled in the Older Persons Cash
Transfer Programme funded by GOK.
Cash Transfers: These are regular non-contributory payments of money provided by
government or non-governmental organizations to individuals or households, with the
objective of decreasing chronic or shock-induced poverty, addressing social risk and
reducing economic vulnerability.
Older Person’s Cash Transfer Programme: A programme providing predictable cash
of KES 2,000 shillings per month paid every two months at the rate of 4,000 Kenya
shillings
Social Protection: Kenya’s Social Protection Policy defines it as Policies and actions,
including legislative measures, which enhance the capacity and opportunities for the poor
and vulnerable to improve and sustain their lives, livelihoods and welfare; enable
income-earners and their dependents to maintain a reasonable level of income through
decent work; and ensure access to affordable healthcare, essential services and social
transfers.
Household: Encompass persons living and eating from the same pot.
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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
This chapter begins with a review of literature on welfare related challenges facing the
elderly and also their welfare needs. It goes ahead to review the policies that have been
put in place with view to improving the welfare of the elderly. It includes literature on the
background of social protection and the policies informing cash transfers as an instrument
used by countries in tackling poverty among vulnerable groups. It presents empirical
literature on cash transfers for the elderly from selected countries of Africa and Latin
American. Existing policies and interventions for the elderly in the Kenyan context are
also included in this chapter.
2.1 Challenges faced by the elderly
Due to their physical deterioration, the aged with assets start relying on others for support
and care. Increase in cost of living is posing a challenge to caregivers of the elderly
especially in catering for their day to day needs.
Intergenerational support mechanisms e.g. extended family supportis slowly collapsing.
Progressive movement of rural persons to urban areas has left old persons at the mercies
of those who lack the economic capacity to support them. Majority of elderly in Kenya
live in rural areas largely because most people retiring from urban jobs end up in their
rural homes. Most of the activities are hands on and the elderly may no longer have
adequate physic to handle them. Rural infrastructure in most rural parts cannot allow for
broader markets of Agricultural and Livestock products hence a challenge to the older
person’s household socio-economic wellbeing (Gorman, Mark et al, 2010). The elderly
also face social evils. Media reports have recently shown that older persons are being
accused of witchcraft. According to Nation Newspaper of 6th October 2011, an elderly
couple was lynched to death on suspicion that they had bewitched their 18 year old
grandson. Others have fallen victims of rape.
18
HIV/AIDS is a critical factor in increasing vulnerability to poverty among the elderly.
They suffer loss of adult children and take responsibility of caring of orphaned
grandchildren and their children living with HIV/AIDS, at a time in their lives in which
they could be taken care of. According to The Kenya National AIDS Strategic Plan of
2009- 2013, Children Orphaned with HIV/AIDS are estimated at 2.4 million (KNASP,
2009/13; 6). The vulnerability is even high when the elderly themselves are infected. It is
estimated that 7 percent of the elderly above 50 years in Sub-Saharan Africa are infected
with HIV/AIDS (HAI, 2008).
Most of the existing social protection programmes in Kenya are contributory and work to
cater for persons who are or were previously in formal employment. These include the
pension scheme, the national social security fund, and the National Hospital Insurance
fund. NHIF has grown to incorporate membership of above 60 years. However, people
who have all along led a poor live are unable to raise the monthly membership
contributions and thus these schemes disadvantage them. Majority of older persons in
Kenya had no access to gainful employment. (Gondi, 2009)
When the elderly are institutionalized, institutions take on the responsibility of taking
care of them. They get detached from their normal lives and that of their extended
families. This process could be denigrating and may cause psychological effects such as
feelings of abandonment. However, because of work and emphasis on the nuclear family
coupled with urbanization most old people especially in industrialized countries have
found their way to spending the remaining part of their lives in institutions for the aged
(Papalia et al 2001)
The kind of work that is common among rural elderly include: agricultural work,
weaving and sewing, domestic work, selling goods in streets, traditional birth attendance
and traditional healing. These kinds of jobs are quite informal and ‘informal sector work
tends to be characterized by long, irregular hours for very low wages’ (Gorman et al
2010).
19
2.2 Welfare needs for the elderly
Older persons, living on their own, require certain amount of financial needs. They need
to fend for themselves for; food, groceries, medicines, etc. Pensioners would have the
benefit of a steady source of monthly income. However, those older persons who do not
have any pension facilities or any other sources of income would live entirely on the
basis of their savings or through special senior citizen government finance schemes.
Older person’s health is the most important requirement when it comes to needs of the
elderly. With advancing age, the body tends to slow down and becomes less efficient.
Elderly people are prone to age-related health issues. These health issues need to be
checked and prevented from causing them any serious harm. Regular medical checkups
are necessary. They help in anticipating potential future health-related issues. At the same
time, they help in identifying serious health problems at an early stage during which
treatment is possible.
As people age, their digestive system gradually starts to weaken. Aged and elderly people
especially, face this problem then they start finding certain foods indigestible or difficult
to digest. There is a change in diet as the elderly opt for more digestible foods.
The elderly require certain amount of assistance in their daily routine as they become
immobile due to sickness and or general frailty i.e. assistance in crucial basic activities
like walking, eating, bathing, dressing, etc.
The elderly also need love and care like any other human being this could be from
relatives, family members, friends and other members of the community. Their dwelling
places ought to be tidy because good hygiene reduce susceptibility to infections
2.3 Social protection
National and international policy instruments recognize Social protection as key in
cushioning vulnerable groups from sinking deeper into poverty or helping those in
chronic poverty out of it. Kenya’s National Social Protection of 2012 cites various
national, regional and international policy instruments as the foundations upon which
20
Kenya’s social protection policies are based on. These instruments include: UDHR of
1948 which recognizes SP as a fundamental right for all citizens, the UN/ILO Social
Protection Floor Initiative (SPF) which guarantees minimum package that adopts lifestyle
approach to social protection (GOK, 2011), The World Summit on Social Development
(WSSD) of 2002 which recognizes the importance of social aspects of development.
Social protection instruments are administered in the form of: cash transfers, feeding
programmes, food subsidies, social or health insurance, microfinance, subsidized
agricultural inputs, public works programs, waivers and exceptions and skills
development. Some of these instruments do not suit the needs of the elderly due to their
reduced ability on hand on activities. According to Vincent and Cull (2009), vulnerable
groups require social protection to protect their livelihoods and each of these groups
require different forms of social protection ranging from Social transfers e.g. grants to the
elderly and cash transfers; social services including home based care, education, health
insurance; Social transformations- i.e. broader policy and legislative changes to ensure
rights of vulnerable groups
The drivers and maintainers of poverty among the elderly include: poor health, frailness,
loss of employment, labor constrains, limited information and awareness, lack of support
among others reduces the older person’s ability to undertake income generating activities,
a justification for most social assistance to households headed by the elderly and caring
for OVCs. Time given to caring for grant children makes the elderly less able to engage
in income generating activities. In a paper presented in a regional workshop by HelpAge
international, previous failure to invest in primary education and nutrition are identified
to diminish opportunities for later life. (HAI, 2010)
The purpose of social protection for older persons is to mitigate and enhance their ability
to cope with and recover from the hazards which they face, to enhance their ability to
emerge from poverty, deprivation and insecurity and finally to enable older people to live
a dignified life with an adequate standard of living so that poverty is not passed from one
generation to another. (HAI, 2010)
21
2.3.1 Social protection policy measures
Kenya’s National Social Protection Policy 2012 identifies three forms of social protection
policy components
1. Social assistance- This include: safety nets and consumption transfers to sustain
livelihoods and build human capital, social transfer in the form of direct cash transfers
to poor and vulnerable groups and in kind benefits. Others are asset protection and
rehabilitation to re-establish livelihoods and asset development and income
opportunities to establish sustainable livelihoods.
2. Social security- These are social protection measures effected by employers and
governments to its workers and citizens respectively. The policy identifies: retirements
schemes, sickness benefits, maternity protection, and unemployment protection among
others as the components of this policy measure. NSSF services fall under this.
3. Health insurance- this policy measure enlists the services of NHIF and proposes to
be increased to cover in-patient services and also to a wider coverage.
2.4 International and RegionalPolicy and legal Frameworks of social protection for
the elderly
This looks into the various existing Regional and International policy and legal
frameworks related to the welfare of the older person.
2.4.1 Universal declaration of human rights- 1948
This declaration was made as a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all
nations. It declared that every individual and every organ of society, keeping the
Declaration, shall strive by teaching and education to promote respect for the identified
rights and freedoms and by progressive measures, national and international, to secure
their universal and effective recognition and observance. Article 22 and 25 of these
universal declarations provide the rationale for social protection to vulnerable groups to
which older persons are included
Article 22.Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to social security and is
entitled to realization, through national effort and international co-operation and in
22
accordance with the organization and resources of each State, of the economic, social and
cultural rights indispensable for his dignity and the free development of his personality.
Article 25.(1) Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and
well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical
care and necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of
unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in
circumstances beyond his control.
2.4.2. Madrid International Plan of Action on Ageing (MIPAA)-2002
UN held a second world assembly after the first of such assembly in Vienna, Austria in
1982. The second world assembly on ageing was held in Madrid in April 2002. The
discussion was aimed at looking into the issues of the elderly and how old persons would
be accorded and assured of a descent livelihood. The Madrid plan of action offered a
new agenda and perspective for handling the issues of ageing in the 21st Century. The
plan provides three broad priority directions which include older persons and
Development, advancing health and wellbeing into old age and enabling supportive
environments.
159 countries adopted the plan as a policy document that offers many suggestions
including: Income security, Social protection and poverty prevention. The Madrid plan of
action was reinforced by the Livingstone declaration of 2006 where 13 AU countries
declared to include social assistance programmes for its vulnerable groups in their plan of
action and national budgets.
2.4.3 Livingstone call for action-2006
The conference was held between 21stand 23th March in Livingstone Zambia. It was
attended by thirteen African countries which included: Kenya, Uganda, Ethiopia,
Madagascar, Malawi, Lesotho, Namibia, Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia and
Zimbabwe. The conference discussed measures for protecting the poorest in Africa.
Social protection was identified as a right and an empowerment agenda. In many of the
23
options, considerable evidence was noted to exist between cash transfer and poverty
reduction and promotion of growth
The provision of cash transfer was noted to increase human capital by helping people to
grow health, educate children and support HIV/AIDS affected families. It was also seen
to stimulate markets and therefore benefiting the whole community
On the 3rd day of the conference delegates called for adoption of cash transfers and social
pensions to vulnerable children, older persons and persons with disabilities, as a more
utilized policy option in African countries.
2.5 Existing Social Protection legal and policy frameworks and programme
Interventions for the elderly in Kenya
Most of the existing social protection interventions in Kenya are contributory. These
include: the NSSF, NHIF, pension schemes which serve to benefit the principle
contributors and by extension their nuclear families. The family and community are still
imperative sources of support for the elderly. Other interventions are those offered by
non-governmental and faith based organizations who basically offer advocacy and
institutionalization services for the aged.
2.5.1 The constitution of Kenya, 2010
The constitution devotes a whole article to the rights of the elderly. Article 57 particularly
delineates that; the state shall take measures to ensure the rights of the older person:
a) To fully participate in the affairs of the society
b) To pursue their personal development
c) To live in dignity and respect and be free from abuse
d) To receive reasonable care and assistance from their family and state
2.5.2 National Policy on Older Persons and Ageing
This policy was published in the year 2009. It has been prepared on a background of
various challenges affecting the elderly in Kenya. Issue of the elderly have been outlined
24
in the policy to include: Law and human rights, poverty and sustainable livelihoods, poor
health and lack of access, harmful cultural practices to the elderly, gender issues, in
which older women are cited as more vulnerable, food security and nutrition, housing and
physical amenities, access to information and training, employment and income security,
social welfare, preparation for retirement, conflicts and disaster situations, institutional
arrangements in support of the older persons affairs and negative impact of population
migration.
The policy also provides a broad framework for implementation through strategies that
would enable the older person to make meaningful contribution to development process.
The Policy recognizes the potential of older persons in terms of skills knowledge and
experience and thus the need to mainstream them in development.
2.5.3 Kenya’s National Social Protection Policy
Kenya’s National Social Protection Policy was debated and passed in parliament in May,
2012. The policy proposes use of several strategies and instruments for delivering social
protection broadly within: Social assistance, social security and social health insurance
sectors. Specific instruments range from Cash Transfers, Food Distribution, School
Based Feeding Programme, Social Health Insurance, Price Subsidies, Public Works and
Microfinance amongst others. The elderly are among the vulnerable constituent of the
populace pointed in the policy as targets of the social assistance component of the
National Social Protection Policy.
2.5.4 Kenya Vision 2030
Kenya’s development blue print, vision 2030, aims to provide a high quality of life for all
citizens by the year 2030. The vision is built on three pillars: Economic, social and
political. The Vision 2030’s Social Pillar aims to achieve a just and cohesive society,
enjoying equitable social development in a clean and secure environment. It is based on
transformation in eight social sector areas, namely: education and training; health; water
and sanitation; environment, housing, and urbanization; gender, youth, sports, and
culture; and promoting equity and poverty reduction. It makes special provision for those
with disabilities, the elderly and those who live in marginalized areas. The consolidated
25
social protection fund is one of the flagship projects of the Vision 2030 out which cash
transfer programme for the elderly falls under.
2.5.5 Pension schemes
This is coordinated by the pension Department in the Ministry of finance; the department
coordinates the processing and payment of pensions, death gratuities and other benefits to
retired, deceased or terminated civil servants, teachers and the military officers in the
Public Service as well as their dependents. Pensions are imperative in a period in which
the beneficiary is at a vulnerable state e.g. at old age when terminally ill and even to the
principle contributor’s household in an even of death.
2.5.6 National social Security fund
This fund was established in 1965 by an Act of Parliament (CAP 258 of the Laws of
Kenya) in order to administer a provident fund scheme for all workers in Kenya. This
fund initially operated under the ministry of Labor but as operations became complex due
to increased membership, an amendment was done to the NSSF Act in 1987 to transform
it into an autonomous state corporation. NSSF members are entitled to the following
benefit
Age retirement benefits – Paid at the age of retirement which 60 years and above
Withdrawal benefits- Early retirement benefit paid to a member who voluntarily retires
early. This benefit is due when the person shall have attained the age of 50.
Emigration grant- paid to members leaving the country permanently
Funeral expenses benefits- paid to the deceased family
Validity grant- Paid to a member who suffers permanent disability.
Survivor’s benefits- paid to the dependents of the deceased member
NSSF works to favor persons who have been in formal or informal employment leaving
out the large populace of unemployed including farmers, casual laborers among others.
2.5.7 The National Hospital Insurance fund
NHIF is a state Parastatal that was established in 1966 as a Department under the then
Ministry of Health which has since been reviewed to meet the changing health needs of
26
the Kenyan population, employment and restructuring in the Health Sector. Its core
function is to collect and manage members’ contributions and pay hospital benefits out of
the contributions and their declared dependence which are utmost four children and a
spouse.
The Parastatal registers members from both formal and informal sector including retirees.
Registration of membership is compulsory for all employees in the formal sector whilst
membership is voluntary for those in the informal sector. Members are entitled to an
inpatient cover of up to 396,000 shillings for the contributor spouse and children (NHIF,
2009)
Recent development in the fund is the increase in the number of years of membership to
above 60. This has been a plus in the part of the elderly population in Kenya which is
often mired with health complications. Though this measure has been put in place, it is
difficult for a poor elderly with irregular income and or living in absolute poverty to
effect the monthly contributions that would qualify them for the hospital cover
2.5.8 Non-governmental organizations
They provide services including advocacy of older persons’ needs, provision of in kind
materials, homes, education among others. These organizations are run by Religious
organization, NGOs and CBOs. Examples of such organizations are: HelpAge
International, Help age Kenya, Cheshire Home for the elderly among others
2.5.9The family
This institution is pivotal in taking care of the elderly though urbanization and modernity
have contributed in reducing the effectiveness of this role of the family as young
members leave for cities and towns to seek jobs and perceived better living.
2.6. Institutionalization of the old
Kenya’s national Policy on older persons and Ageing encourages support of the elderly
within the family. As a policy strategy, institutionalization is discouraged and retention of
cultural respect for the older person is seen as the best alternative. Emphases are laid on:
27
community-based support systems such as kinship, extended family and neighborhood in
taking care of the elderly. (MOGCSD, 2009)
In recognition of the importance of family care for the elderly, thefirst world countries
e.g. China, Japan and Singapore have passed laws obliging people to care for their elderly
relatives. Japan and Singapore provide tax relief to those who give older relatives
financial help. In Japan lotteries for tenancy in public housing gives households with a
member of age 60 and above a ten times greater chances of winning. Institutionalization
is still a last resort only for those who are destitute or without families’ (Papalia et al,
2001: 27).
Institutionalization is considered as disjoining the elderly from normal living. They are
disengaged from family members; work, among other life routines and associations.
While homes are criticized, it also gives refuge to destitute elderly
2.7Understanding cash transfers.
Samson, Nierkerk and Mac Quene, (2006) defined cash transfer as social protection
interventions falling under social transfers. It involves the transfer of real cash to an
intended beneficiary. They classified cash transfers into three categories:
Cash transfers are social protection interventions falling under social transfers. It involves
the transfer of real cash to an intended beneficiary (Samson, Nierkerk and Mac Quene,
2006). They classified cash transfers into three categories:
Unconditional cash transfers- These are regular non-contributory payments of money
provided without active conditionality by a government or non-governmental
organization to individuals or households with the objective of decreasing chronic or
shock induced poverty, providing social protection, addressing social risks or reducing
economic vulnerability. Examples are: Social pensions, child grants, family assistance,
widow allowances, grants for the elderly and persons with disabilities among others.
Empirical literature shows that cash transfer for the elderly are commonly unconditional.
Conditional cash transfers- They are regular payments of money by a government or
non-governmental organization to individuals or households in exchange for active
28
compliance with human capital conditionalities with the intention of reducing chronic or
shock induced poverty providing social protection, addressing social risk or addressing
economic vulnerability.
The human capital conditionalities include such requirements as; school attendance and
academic performance by children, clinic visits, and adult education programs among
others. Kenya’s CT-OVC is a conditional form of cash transfer aimed at increasing
school attendance and retention among orphaned and vulnerable children.
Public works- They are programmes that offer regular payments of money or in kind
benefits by government or non-governmental organizations to individuals in exchange of
work. An example is the Kenya’s KazikwaVijana(cash for work) initiative
2.7.1 Empirical literature on cash transfers programmes for the elderly
There is increased attention on the adoption of cash transfers as social protection
interventions by countries. Dithier, Pestieau and Ali, (2010) observes that there is
increased advocacy for Cash transfers since policies that go through labor and output
markets and educational training programmes are ineffective and that the only available
instrument to alleviate old age poverty is the transfer of real income.
The need for social grants in Kenya as a social protection instrument is motivated by
extreme and persistent poverty which prevents a large population of poor people from
accessing, or benefitting from mainstream development interventions (MOGCSD, 2011)
In low and middle income countries, Examples of a few countries having universal
minimum level social pension arrangements include Mauritius, Namibia, Botswana,
Bolivia and Lesotho. In developed countries, New Zealand provides universal pension to
its aged populations with the objective to lift old persons above poverty line.
The government of the Kingdom of Lesotho introduced a non-contributory old age
pension schemes for 70 years of age and above in the year 2004. The aim is to reduce
poverty among the elderly. The recipients of the non-contributory pension ought not to be
recipients of contributory old age pensions. Financing of the scheme is by general
taxation (Bellow et al, 2007)
29
South Africa's state pension mirrors the history of the country. The first pensions were
paid to whites in 1928 and extended to blacks in 1940, but huge disparities in the
amounts paid to different race groups remained until a year before the first democratic
elections in 1994. This is according to NCPPS Newsletter of March 2003. South Africa’s
Old-age pension is a means-tested up to 1,010 rand a month is paid for a single
pensioner; married couples may receive double the amount. The pension is reduced to 25
percent of the maximum amount if the pensioner resides in a care facility under contract
to the State for more than 3 months. Constant-attendance allowance of 240 rand a month
is additionally paid to the older person’s household (IRIN, 2011)
A number of developing countries have a universal means tested schemes which applies
to the household. Examples are the South Africa’s and the Brazil. South Africa’s social
pension is equivalent to one third of per capita income. The targeted elderly are those
who are 65year and above for men and 60 years and above for women. In Brazil, social
protection programmes are funded through general taxation and the elderly targets for
their BPC programme are women of above 55 years and men above 60 years of age.
(Soares et al, 2008)
Brazils BPC is enshrined in the Constitution and thus regarded as a constitutional right.
Any individual meeting the criteria can receive the benefit and might demand it
judicially. In Brazil it is estimated that Cash transfer programmes alone are accountable
for 23 percent of drop in income inequality between 2001-2004 in the country (Soares et
al, 2008).
Brazil’s BPC is criticized for presumably encouraging evasion of social security
contributions. The rationale for this criticism is that if individuals will receive from
regular pension, there would be no reason to contribute to the public social security
systems. The point of argument is that social assistance programmes cause dependence
among the poor populace who are often the beneficiaries of such programmes (Soares et
al, 2008)
Bolivia’s Cash transfer programme was established in year 2008 under its RentaDignidad
policy which requires that all persons above 60 years receive a monthly payment of 28.3
30
USD which is equivalent to 329USD per year if the beneficiary does not receive pension
and a 75 percent of cash transfers to elderly in receipt of pension. The 75 percent is
equivalent to 247 USD. The source of finance for the RentaDignidad program is from
direct tax from the country’s hydrocarbons. Armed forces aid in distribution of the fund
to ensure that the fund reaches hardly unreachable frontiers. This is according to a
presentation done by Bolivia’s country representative in a regional workshop held in
Lilian Towers, Nairobi, the beneficiaries of the this programme up to the year 2010 was
approximately 750 thousand older persons. The presentations also unearthed that over 20
percent beneficiary households registered increase in their household income as a result
of the benefit which allowed them to increase their consumption as well.
Studies done on the impacts of cash transfer across South Africa showed that in addition
to promoting food security, social transfers have additional beneficial effects that are
wide ranging, and extend beyond the direct recipient of the transfer to the wider family.
For the recipient, there is evidence to suggest that cash transfers promote self-esteem,
social status and empowerment. They also improve food security and nutritional status
not just for the transfer recipient but also that of the household, (Vincent and Cull, 2009).
An impact evaluation report of CT-OVC Kenya done by Tomkins et al (2008) showed a
reduction in the rate of absenteeism among children in programme from 31.3 percent to
11.9 percent. Cash transfers increase the purchasing powers of families as long as they
receive the benefit (Soares et al, 2008)
A policy analysis research project done by Barrientos and Nino-Zarazua (2009) indicated
that the focus of social transfer programmes on extreme poverty suggested that they
could have important effects in reducing persistent poverty. They also argued that social
transfers are emerging as a core component within social protection policies aimed at
tackling poverty and vulnerability.
According to (HAI, 2010), pensions support the economy. ‘A social pension to an older
person can inject cash into the local economies, by giving people spending power and
access to markets.’
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2.8 Theoretical Framework
The rationale of cash transfer is based on the challenges afflicting the elderly. These
challenges are related to their needs. These needs are holistic and encompass:
physiological, social psychological and economic needs. Cash transfers are offered to
enable older persons meet their basic need of Food, shelter, clothing, medical care among
others. Research has shown that Cash transfers enable poor people to meet basic needs
and increase their chances of accessing services which they otherwise could not. Basic
needs are also interrelated to psychological needs in that when basic needs are made
people are motivated to pursue more things including engaging in income generating
activities, leisure, visiting social places like ceremonies and religious places which in turn
enhance a person’s self-esteem.
The impact of the fund has been conceived on the basis of the following theories of social
welfare.

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory

Hansell’s motivation theory
2.9.1 Maslow’s theory of needs
This was developed by Abraham Maslow in 1968. The theory proposes a hierarchy of
human needs that is applicable to the human services model.The Hierarchy consists of 5
levels.
1. Physiological needs. These are the literal requirements for human survival. These
include: Food, shelter, oxygen.
2. Safety needs. This safety could be economic or physical. Economic needs manifest
itself in form of: job security, insurance policies. Safety needs include: personal needs,
financial needs, health and wellbeing, safety net against accidents among others.
3. Love and belonging. This is a social need related to intimacy and acceptance from
others.
4. Esteem needs: Esteem presents the normal human desire to be accepted and be valued
by others. It implies recognition by others that a person is competent or respected.
32
5.Self-actualization
These needs relate to the fulfillment of a person’s innate potential as a human being. At
self-actualized people possess attributes that are consistent with highly competent and
successful individuals.
Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often portrayed in the shape of a pyramid, with the largest
and most fundamental levels of needs at the bottom (physiological needs), and the need
for self-actualization at the top. Cash transfer enable older persons’ households meet
their fundamental needs (physiological needs) of food, shelter and clothing. Physiological
needs brings fulfillment in the person hence making it possible for persons to achieve the
other needs in the pyramid which include: esteem, need to love and be loved, safety
needs and finally self-actualization
The challenges of old age can be understood in the context of disengagement theory.
The theory, which was developed by Cumming and Henry in late 1950’s, postulates that
aging is an inevitable mutual withdrawal or disengagement resulting in decreased
interaction between the aging person and others in the social system he/she belongs (Fay,
[ND]). Under this theory, as people age, they tend to grow more fragile and their social
circles shrink as they start to pull away and be less actively involved. Being less active
and with decreased ability of the aging person to engage in social relationships or engage
in physical activities makes the older person susceptible to vulnerability and old age
poverty.
Provision of cash transfers reactivates older persons by making them able to engage in
income generating activities, establish or enhance social relationships perhaps through
merry go rounds and the like. It makes it possible for them to contribute to meeting
household needs of food, shelter, clothing among others. This concurs with Robert
Harvighust Activity Theory of 1960's which according to Fay [ND] supports the
maintenance of regular activities, roles and social pursuits, he continues to say that
persons who achieve optimal age are those who stay active as roles change, the individual
finds substitute activities for these roles.
33
Interventions which are therefore conceptualized in the context of activity theory make it
possible for older persons to come back towards active life. Other than making them
possible to meet their own needs, their self-esteem can be enhanced and further a
progressive growth towards self-actualization as proposed by Abraham Maslow in his
theory of needs.
2.9.2 Motivation Theory.
This Theory wasdeveloped by Hansell. It posits that people must achieve seven basic
attachments in order to meet their needs and that if a person does not succeed in
achieving each of these attachments it results into a state of crisis or stress. The seven
basic attachments and their corresponding signs of failure are;
1. Food, water and oxygen along with informational supplies.
Signs of failure: boredom, apathy, and physical disorder.
2. Intimacy, sex, closeness and opportunity to exchange deep feelings
Signs of failure; loneliness, isolation, and lack of sexual satisfaction.
3. Belonging to a social peer group
Signs of failure; not feeling part of any group
4. A clear definite self-identity
Signs of failure; feeling doubtful and indecisive
5. Social role that carries with it a sense of being a competent member of society
Signs of failure; depression and a sense of failure.
6. The need to be linked to a cash economy through a job, a spouse with income, Social
security benefits.
Signs of failure; lack of purchasing power leading to inability to purchase essentials.
7. A comprehensive system of meaning with clear priorities in life.
Signs of failure; sense of drifting through life detachment and alienation.
The challenges of old age relate to the signs of failure as indicated in Hansell’s theory.
The theory therefore gives a perspective of welfare intervention in which GOK devised
cash transfer to ensure that the challenges are reduced so that that older persons meet
their minimum basic needsand subsequently psychosocial calmness through receiving a
predictable t cash stipend of KES 4,000.
34
2.10 Conceptual framework
Adequate welfare state of an elderly means that he/she is able to cater for his/her basic
needs of food, shelter, clothing, medical care and leisure among others. In a case where
the elderly is unable to cater for his/her welfare needs, support could be accorded through
various social protection interventions including cash transfers. The aim of the
interventions is to ensure that vulnerable older persons have their basic needs met. Lack
of such interventions could compromise the welfare state of the elderly making them
vulnerable to absolute poverty. The resulting impact of lack of intervention to cushion
them from poverty is characterized by economic disempowerment, lack of food, poor
housing, depression, lack of care and social isolation. This concept is represented in the
following diagram.
Diagram illustration of conceptual framework
-Lack of food/hunger
-Lack of shelter/ dilapidating
shelter
-Poor health
-Low purchasing power
Underlying causes
Social Protection interventions
-Social assistance (including cash
transfers)
-Social security (health
insurance/NHIF/NSSF)
-Family care and support
-Donations from NGOs/FBOs.
- Income from own
investments/farm
-Lack/loss of assets
- No/limited income
-Challenges of ageing
(frailty)
- Social exclusion
-Improved Nutrition
-Improved shelter
- Health improvement
-Economic empowerment
-Increased social
networks/leisure
-Hunger, poor shelter,
poor health conditions,
lack of basic education of
school going members of
the household, low
purchasing power,
Isolation)
35
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This chapter focuses on how the research was undertaken. It presents a description of the
research site, target population, sampling techniques and sample size, target population,
data collection instruments, pilot study to test validity and reliability of research
instruments, data analysis techniques and logistical and ethical considerations.
3.1 Site selection and description
Makueni County is located in the southern part of Eastern Province and borders four
counties with Kitui to the east, TaitaTaveta to the south, Kajiado to the west and
Machakos to the north. According to the Population Census of 2009, the County has a
total population of 884,527. It has five parliamentary constituencies of; Kaiti, Mbooni,
Kibwezi, Kilome and Makueni. It lies within the Arid and Semi-Arid zones of the
Country. Drought is a main source of poverty and the most vulnerable are: women,
children and the aged. Many families lose their livestock during prolonged drought and
water can only be got from far. The poverty prevalence is estimated at 64.3 percent.
(Republic of Kenya, 2009)
During the start of the programme in Makueni County, the constituencies with the most
poverty prevalence were selected to implement the programme. Therefore three
constituencies of Makueni, Kaiti and Mbooni with a poverty prevalence of 67 percent, 66
percent and 61 percent respectively were chosen as illustrated in the table below
(MOGCSD, 2009)
Table 1: Makueni County, Constituency Level poverty prevalence.
Name of
Constituency
Poverty incidence
below poverty line.
Poverty
gap
Estimated
population
year 2007.
1
Mbooni
61
22
207,094
Estimated
number of
poor
individuals
113,902
2
Kaiti
66
24
142,432
78,337
3
Makueni
67
25
265,841
145,831
4
Kibwezi
54
18
246,841
135,690
5
Kilome
61
22
102,371
56,371
(Source Makueni District OPCT scale up report, 2009)
36
The County was awarded 750 chances of registering Older Persons to be Included in the
OPCT programme. Four Locations were selected and chances of registration of older
persons above 65 years awarded as presented in the table below.
Table 2: Geographical distribution of beneficiaries in OPCT programme in
Makueni County-2009.
Constituency
Division
Location
Male
Female Number of older
person in programme
Makueni
Kitise
Kitise
58
158
216
Kaiti
Kaiti
Kivani
52
148
200
Mbooni
Kalawa
Athi
52
132
184
Mbooni
Kisau
Waia
45
105
150
Total beneficiaries
750
(Source: MOGCSD Makueni District OPCT scale up report, 2009)
All the above four locations were sampled for the study.
3.1.2Description of the OPCT programme
This gives a broader overview of the elderly programme. It has been derived from
existing literature and information by key informant vis-à-vis the programme.
The overall objective of the program is to strengthen the capacities of older persons and
improve their livelihood while alleviating integrated poverty through sustainable social
protection mechanisms. This is to be achieved by providing regular and predictable cash
transfer to vulnerable older persons in identified households and building the capacities
of beneficiaries in order to improve their livelihoods
The government started the programme as recognition of the plight of the poor and
vulnerable elderly population. This is based on the evidence that as people age production
ability diminishes, most of them take care of orphans and a lack regular income
especially those who are poor and had no access to formal employment.
37
The programme design is said to take place at the Ministry headquarters under the
coordination of the OPCT unit. The implementation guideline is communicated to the
provincial and district level through trainings. The district level under the coordination of
District Gender and Social Development officer (DGSDOs) targets beneficiaries with the
support of District Gender and Social Development committees (DGSDCs) comprising
from line ministries and NGO representatives at the District level. At the location level
Location Committees are formed through a community participatory process during
mobilized community meetings (Barazas).
The entry point of the programme is the household. Selection of beneficiaries is guided
by a laid down criteria which include: household with: an older person of 65 years and
above, which is extremely poor, one that is not enrolled in other cash transfer
programme, a non-recipient of pension, has resided in a particular location for more than
a year and finally must be a Kenyan citizen. The targeting process is done by enumerators
Communities through gatherings at the location level validate enlisted persons based on
the criteria for selection. Ranking is done to ensure that the most vulnerable are enrolled
to the programme first.
3.2 Target population
The study targeted older Persons who are beneficiaries of The Older persons Cash
Transfer Programme and are aged 65 years and above. This is because the minimum age
for enrolment into the programme is 65 years.
3.3 Unit of analysis
According to Babbie (2009), unit of analysis is the ‘what or whom being studied’ the unit
of analysis for this study was the impact of cash transfers on older persons above 65 years
of age. The unit of observation was the older person enrolled in cash transfer programme
and receiving cash transfer.
3.4 Sampling design and sample population.
Kothari (2004:154) defines sampling as the selection of aggregate or totality on the basis
of which a judgment or inference about the aggregate or totality is made; that is a process
of obtaining information about an entire population by examining only a part of it. The
38
sample frame was a finite population of 750 which was the total number of beneficiaries
implementing the programme in Makueni County in 2009.
Approximately 20 percent of the 750 beneficiaries in the County were sampled for the
research. Based on this a sample of 154 beneficiaries was selected. The rationale for
sampling 20 percent was for the research to be undertaken within a manageable limit in
terms of money and time.
Proportionate sampling technique was used to obtain the sample per location and also by
sex. The sample of 154 was proportionately distributed in the four implementing
locations as follows.
Table3: Proportionate distribution of sample population per location and sex.
Location
Total beneficiaries
Sample per Sex
Total sample
per location
Male
Female
Per location
Kitise
216
12
32
44
Kivani
200
11
30
41
Athi
184
11
27
38
Waia
150
9
22
31
Total
750
43
111
154
Beneficiaries to be interviewed were randomly selected from the beneficiary data of older
persons in Makueni District Genderand Social Development office.
The reason for using proportionate sampling in coming up with a sample of equal
proportion according to gender and geographic location and of further getting a random
sample for data collection was to enhance representativeness of the sample population.
3.5 Type of data
Both primary and secondary data was used. Interview schedule and key informants’
interview guide were used to obtain primary data.
39
At proposal stages of this project paper the researcher had envisaged to use baseline
report as a comparative point of ascertaining impact. However, there was no baseline
report available in the MOGCSD. What was available for Makueni County was a raw
data of 868 older persons who were said to have been enlisted as having qualified for the
OPCT programme in 2009 although all of them were not immediately enrolled
considering the fact that the County had a quota of allocation of 750 beneficiaries.
The researcher therefore requested to analyze the data of 868 older persons to inform
baseline information. The baseline information is presented in chapter four together with
the results of the analysis of the interview schedule and key informant’s interview guide
used by the researcher to collect data.
3.6 Data collection methods.
The data was collected using both qualitative and quantitative data collection methods.
Basically interviews were used to obtain information from the respondents. Interview
schedules were developed to capture both qualitative and quantitative data by
incorporating both open and closed ended questions.
Key informants were interviewed with view to gaining in depth understanding of the
programme. The following data collection instruments were used.
a) Interview Schedules
In this case data is collected by filling up the schedules on the basis of replies given by
respondents (Kothari, 2004:17) Schedules with open and closed ended questions were
used. The interview schedules were administered by trained enumerators. Interview
schedules were developed for use with the assumption that most of the older persons may
be illiterate and thus the need for an enumerator to record their responses. According to
Kothari (2004), the use of schedules reduces non-responses; It is also relevant in
instances where the respondents happen to be illiterate.
b) Key informants’ interviews
Key informants, as a result of their personal skills, or position within a society, are able to
provide more information and a deeper insight into what is going on around them
40
(Marshall, 1996). Officers involved in the direct implementation of the programme at the
Department of Gender and Social development within The MOGCSD and the field level
are deemed to have a great insight regarding the programme.
To obtain information on how cash transfers reach beneficiaries, Gender and Social
development officers working for the programme were deemed necessary to act as key
informants for the research. The District Gender and Social Development officer was
basically the key informant that gave insight on how the programme works at the County
and District level.
c) Observation
This mode of data collection was used for particular variables specifically shelter and
sanitation.
3.7 Pilot Study
According to Mugenda and Mugenda (1999), the researcher should pretest the research
instruments to be used in the study. The tool was pretested using three beneficiaries in
Nairobi’s Langata District to establish whether the instruments met the necessary
standards of an effective data collection tool such as to the length, clarity, coherence or
consistency in the flow of questions. Based on this some of the questions were removed
added or improved
3.7 Data analysis
Since closed ended and open ended questions were incorporated in the interview
schedule, both qualitative and quantitative data analysis methods were adopted. In
quantitative data analysis, closed ended questions were organized, coded, data entered
into computer. Data analysis was done using SPSS and tabulations done using excel
spreadsheet and MS word. Data has been summarized descriptively by use of
frequencies, percentages, charts (Bar graphs and pie charts) and tables.
The Qualitative data from open ended questions were sorted into common themes and
then coded. Information from key informant interview was organized appropriately for
purposes of reporting and presentation.
41
3.8 Ethical Consideration
Consent was sought from respondents before asking them questions about the research
and or making photos. The purpose of the research was clarified as purely for academic
42
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS AND INTEPRETATION OF
FINDINGS
This chapter gives analysis of data collected from impact assessment. In addition it
provides analysis of data from the targeting and registration form used in 2009 with
parameters related to the objective of the research. The data was obtained from the Ministry
of Gender, Children and Social Development unanalyzed and already entered in SPSS.
This data was used in 2009 for purposes of qualifying beneficiaries into the programme.
There was no data available to inform baseline status prompting the researcher upon
realization of lack of such crucial data to ask for the retrieval of the raw data particularly
for Makueni County. The data for Makueni had 868 older persons enlisted as having made
the eligibility criteria in 2009. Some items in the targeting and registration tool (tool
annexed) has been analyzed to inform beneficiary baseline status.
The presentation has logically followed the objectives of the research as outlined in chapter
one. However, the demographic characteristic of respondents as asked in the interview
schedule has been presented prior. The presentation is structured in accordance with
research objectives as follows:

Presentation of demographic characteristics of respondents and programme awareness
levels.

An exploration of how cash transfer is delivered from the highest level to beneficiaries
of Makueni County

Presentation on the challenges faced by the elderly in OPCT programme in Makueni
District.

The last part provides an analysis and presentation findings in relation to the socioeconomic impact of the OPCT programme on the welfare of the elderly. basicallyon:
food security, health, clothing, micro investments, education of household members,
access to goods and services on credit, social inclusion, and on the ability of the
household to sustain their livelihood upon the termination of the government’s cash
transfer programme.
43
4.1. Demographic characteristics of respondents
These include: location of respondents, gender, age, education level of respondents,
occupation, and household economic status of beneficiaries and or their households.
Some of the demographics are presented in comparative manner that is as of 2009 and
2012 depending on whether such data was available.
4.1.1 Distribution of respondents by location
Respondents were distributed in four programme locations of Athi, Kitise, Kivani and
Waia. It is imperative to note that the locations mentioned here are pogramme locations
and may not reflect administrative locations as of the year 2012 because it was
established during data collection that new locations had been established.
The
distribution per location was as follows;
Table 4: Geographical Distribution of Respondents per Location
location
Athi
Kitise
Kivani
Waia
TOTAL
In 2009
Number
of Percent (%)
respondents
243
269
204
152
868
Location
28
31
23.5
17.5
100
Athi
Kitise
Kivani
Waia
In 2012
Number of
beneficiary
households
38
44
41
31
154
Percent (%)
24.7
28.6
26.6
20.1
100
The respondents’ distributions by location were: 28 percent for Athi, 31 percent for
Kitise, 23.5 percent for Kivani and 17.5 percent for Waia locations. The sample
population had 24.7 percent respondents from Athi, 8.6 percent from Kitise, 26.6 percent
from Kivani and 20.1 percent from Waia Locations.
Scale up report of Makueni, 2009 showed that more beneficiaries were selected for
Kivani and Kitise because they are located in Kaiti and Makueni which has higher
poverty indices at 66 percent and 67 percent respectively. By virtue of basing the criteria
on poverty indices, two constituencies: Kilome and Kibwezi were left out. Among the
many locations, four were selected to implement the programme.
44
In relation to location distribution of beneficiaries and considering the fact that many
locations were left out, targeting some locations and excluding others deny eligible older
persons in such areas their right of support by the state.
4.1.2 Gender distribution of the respondents.
The Respondents at impact assessment comprised of a sample of 154 beneficiaries of the
OPCT programme (43male, 111female). The sample was proportionally derived from
summary distribution of 750 beneficiaries of the OPCT programme.
The gender
distribution is as presented in the chart below.
The data of 868 older had 548 female and 320 males. The following is a pie chart
distribution of respondents by gender.
Chart 1: Gender Distribution of respondents
Respondent distribution by
gender-2009
Respondent distribution by
gender-2012
36.9%
Male
63.1%
Female
72.1%
Female
27.9%
Male
The percentages of male and female respondents in 2009 were 63.1 percent and 36.9
percent respectively. The percentages of women (72.1%) and men (27.9%) at impact
assessment are consistent with the percentage of either gender in 2009.
However, there is a slight difference in terms of the ratio in that the baseline had the
highest women ratio. The difference can be attributed to the fact that the sample was
derived from a sampling frame of 750 beneficiaries who were the beneficiaries of the
programme as of June 2012. It could also be attributed to replacement of exited cases
which considers vulnerability of the older person at the waiting list and not the gender
aspects.
45
From this it can be noted that women were the majority. The reason for this could be
because women are said to have a higher life expectancy. Robinson (2007) in his paper
‘the trends and healthcare use among older women of USA’ said that men have lower
expectancy rates. Another general reason he gives for women’s longevity is the fact that
women marry men older than them. Because of this, Robinson argued that women aged 65
years are more likely to be widowed (43 %) than older men (13%).
Existing reports show that the world population is higher for women compared to older
men. AU Policy Framework and plan of Action on Ageing indicate that the majority of
older persons in almost every country are women (55% globally) with difference in gender
ratios increasing with age (HAI, [ND]). According to Heslop (1999), women’s greater
longevity means that the world of older people is predominantly one of poor women often
widowed who all too often face physical suffering, economic disadvantage and social
exclusion
4.1.3 Age Distribution of respondents.
Ages of respondents are grouped from 65 years being the age of entry for older persons
into the Cash Transfer Programme for the elderly. The ages have been grouped with
intervals of ten (10) to conform to the national Census age grouping. Respondents’ ages of
older persons during enrolment and at impact assessment are as presented below:
Table 5: Age Distribution of respondents.
Age Distribution 2009
Age group Number of Percent
respondents
(%)
Age Distribution 2012
Age group Number of Percent
65-74
316
65-74
63
75-84
396
75-84
69
85-94
121
85-94
20
95 and
above
35
respondents (%)
36.5
45.6
13.9
95
44.8
13
and 2
above
4
868
40.9
100
1.3
154
46
100
Going by the data in chart table 5above, the highest number of respondents lay between
75-84 years at 45.6 percent followed by a 36.4 percent for those in ages 65-74years. Those
above 85 years were comparatively less. On the other hand, impact assessment reveals a
higher percentage (44.8%) of older persons within age group 75-84 as beneficiaries of the
programme followed by ages 65-74 (40.9%), then ages 85-94 years at (13.3. %) and finally
those with 95 years and above at 1.3 percent. The low number of beneficiaries, despite
their frailty and associated vulnerability, among 95 years and over olds can be attributed to
the fact that less people live to see their hundred year birth day.
This trend is evident in the distribution of older persons in the 2009 population census
which revealed a reduction in number of older persons with advancement in age. Those
within the age bracket of 65-74 totalled 593,778 as opposed to those above 80 years who
were entirely 183,701 (KNBS, 2010). It can be argued that more older persons in
programme between ages 75 and 84 years is because they could be more vulnerable than
persons between 65-74 whose national statistics reveals has the highest among other age
categories of elderly over 65 years of age.
The National Policy on Older Persons and Ageing gives the minimum age for older
persons needing welfare support at 60 years. Elevating the age for the elderly targeted in
Cash Transfer Programme for the elderly means that a good number of vulnerable older
persons within ages sixty and sixty four are left out.
On the contrary, providers of social welfare programmes argue of lack of adequate
resources for universal welfare programmes. The lack of adequate financing of social
assistance programmes is the reason behind designing targeted programmes for vulnerable
groups like the elderly. KNCHR (2009), supports this argument by reporting that high
levels of poverty in developing countries including Kenya diminish available resources for
the provision of basic financial assistance to older persons. Despite the limitation, it can be
argued rightly that the implementation of cash transfer and the subsequent up scaling of the
programme is an indication of the government’s will to support older persons’ policies.
47
4.1.4 Marital status of respondents.
This presents the marital status of older persons targeted in 2009 and at impact assessment.
The findings are as comparatively tabulated.
Graph 1: Marital status of respondents
Marital status of respondents
2009
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Marital status of respondents 2012
60
80.1%
52.6%
50
42.2%
40
30
20
13.8%
0.6%
1.5%
10
4%
1.3%
1.3%
2.6%
0
Evidence from analysis of targeting tool indicates that majority (80.1%) of the
respondents were married. This was followed by widowed cases at 13.8 percent, then
single cases at 4.0 percent, separated at 1.5 percent and finally divorced at 0.6 percent. At
impact assessment; widowed cases had gone up (from 13.8% during baseline to 52.6%
during impact assessment). Married cases went relatively down (from 80.1% to 42.2 %).
Marital status in old age is skewed toward widowhood/widower. This is because older
persons loose their spouses as age advances and health complications crop up and
therefore the difference to the results may not be linked to the effects of cash transfer.
The higher married cases in 2009 imply that there are more than two older persons in the
household. Since the programme does not enroll more than two persons in a household,
the household with only one older person stands a better chance than one with more than
two because many older persons can be an added vulnerability to an already needy
household.
48
Significant change is observed for married and widowed cases at impact assessment
though this may not be associated with the cash transfer. Life phase humans and other
living beings as age advances through death. The reduction in married cases and
increment in widowed cases can be attributed to natural attrition. According to the
programme majority of the exits done are mainly through death of a beneficiary.
The implication of a spousal loss is a tragic event in a person's life. As spouse live
together for ages, they become part of each other. There is an emotional attachment to
their relationship hence when a spouse dies it becomes a loss to the living partner. It is
hereby thought that the psychological impact of widowhood/widower hood manifesting
in form of stress can be devastative to an elderly. This is corroborated by Nalungwe,
(2009) who brought out that the loss of a spouse is a challenging and life changing event,
this is even worse in elderly people, whether the spouse dies expectedly or unexpectedly,
loneliness among the elderly widows whose social network has already been reduced,
affects the elderly widows quality of life and they become more vulnerable to loneliness.
Emotional and social loneliness are the most talked about types of loneliness widows’
experience, whereby emotional loneliness is the absence of a close emotional
relationship, which is obvious for the widows. Social loneliness is brought on by a lack of
social network, or unsupportive social network. This is because as human we are
interactive and we need someone to talk, to be with or share things with. A widow needs
a social network that is supportive to help her close the gap left by the husband widows
with an active social life rarely suffer social loneliness. During the impact assessment,
majority of the older persons managed to join merry go rounds by virtue of receiving
cash transfer.
4.1.5 Education level of respondents
This is basically in relation to the sample population at impact assessment as findings of
2009 do not provide.
49
Table 6: Education level of respondents-2012
Education level
Frequency
Percent (%)
Illiterate
141
91.6
Semi illiterate
5
3.2
Primary Level
8
5.2
Total
154
100
Illiterate cases were the highest (91.6 %) followed by primary level (5.2 %) and then
semi illiterate at 3.2 percent. No one had gone beyond primary school.
A study done in Nyanza by Ondigi and Ondigi (2012) on the influence of poverty and
wellbeing of the elderly attributed limited sources of income including from pension
schemes to minimum education level (primary and below). The high illiteracy level
among the beneficiary elderly (91.6%) can be part of the reasons why all the households
(100%) resorted to peasant agriculture. Acquisition of a moderate or higher education
could increase a person’s probability of acquiring more income through employment.
4.1.6 Main occupation of respondent
All the 154 (100%) beneficiaries interviewed said that they relied on peasant agriculture
for their livelihood. However this question was not asked for the 868 older persons
targeted for the OPCT programme in 2009. This is consistent with GOK (2009) which
indicates that ‘The main sub-sector for Makueni District is agriculture and livestock
production which constitute the major economic activity in the District and is estimated
to contribute about 78 percent of household income and offering employment to over
107,211 residence’
Agriculture is an occupation that requires physical engagement. Old persons in their
advanced ages may not be able to till land. Taking into account that Makueni is a semiarid area, farming can be a great challenge to the elderly.
50
4.1.7 Economic Status of households
The findings on the main occupation of respondentsshow that all of them are peasant
agriculture. Questions were further put up to ascertain the occupation of other household
members for purposes of gauging the overall household economic status. Responses have
been summarized in the graph below.
Graph2: Economic status of the household
74.7%
household members (%)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
16.9%
8.4%
10
0
Earner
Helper
Dependant
A majority (74.7%) of the household members are dependants. Majority of the
dependants are school going children (70%). Earners (16.9%) were mainly house helps
and casual workers. Helpers (8.4%) were mainly peasant farmers augmenting the
household needs.
The households’ earners and helpers are less (25.3%) compared to those who are
dependants. It can therefore be assumed that the cash transfer expenditure goes beyond
the older person since quite a large number of the household members are dependants.
The implication is that, the livelihood of the older person may not be catered for fully as
the programme envisages.
4.2 How cash transfer flow from the ministry to the beneficiaries in Makueni
County
The objective focused on examining how cash transfer stipend is delivered from the
Ministry of Gender, Children and Social; Development to the ultimate beneficiary living
villages of Makueni County.
51
The research found out that the fund is delivered through the PCK headquarters to the
PCK branches which does the actual payment of beneficiaries with mobilizations done
with the coordination of the District Gender and Social Development and actual
mobilization by provincial administration (through the chiefs) and the lowest structure of
the programme which is the location committees.
4.2.1How cash transfers reach older persons in Older Persons Cash Transfer
Programme in Makueni County
The diagram below illustrates the flow of funds from the Ministry of Gender Children
and Social Development headquarters to the beneficiaries of OPCT programme in
Makueni District specifically in three constituencies of Kaiti, Mbooni and Makueni. This
data was basically derived from the District gender and Social Development officer,
Makueni District who was the key informant.
52
Flow of cash transfer from the MOGCSD headquarters to the beneficiariesinMakueni
County during payment.
MOGCSD
Headquarters
Wires Funds/sends payrolls of older
PCK Headquarters
Persons to be paid.
Information on payment dates
Disburse funds to branches/sends
payrolls
(By the OPCT program officers)
District Gender and Social
Development office
PCK Branches
(Tawa, Kathonzweni and
Makueni post offices)
Information on payment dates
Location Committees/local
administration
Beneficiaries turn up for
payment
Mobilize beneficiaries (informing of payment dates)
Beneficiaries
Diagram devised by researcher 2013
The cash transfer is wired from the MOGCSD headquarters to the PCK headquarters. At
the same time the OPCT unit sends the payrolls to the post office headquarters for
onward submission to the paying branches. Money is send from the headquarters to the
53
PCK branches. In Makueni County the branches that serve Makueni, Kaiti and Mbooni
Constituencies which comprised the area of studyare:Makueni, Tawa and Mbooni post
offices.
The PCK headquarters upon payrolls and associated cash from theMOGCSDinforms the
OPCT Programmeunit about the payment dates. The officer in Makueni then gets
information from OPCT programme officers at the headquarters regarding payment
dates so that they mobilize beneficiaries to turn up for payments as per the
communicated dates. Payment timeline is a span of two weeks.
It was reported that once information regarding payment dates is received from the
Ministry headquarters dates are re-allocated according to sub-locations to avoid a big
number of beneficiaries turning up for payment at once and avoiding long queues for
older persons who are already too frail to stand.
To ensure that the right beneficiaries receive their entitlement, beneficiaries are required
to provide their national IDs which should conform to the details in the payroll. Older
persons or their caregivers turn up for payment in line with the informed dates
4.3 Challenges faced by older persons in accessing and as beneficiaries of cash
transfer
The research looked at challenges directly affecting the beneficiary. The focus areas
were: regularity of the cash transfer stipend hostility from the family or household
emanating from being a recipient of cash transfer, distance from pay point and the cost of
reaching the pay point.
The research found out that the cash transfer stipend is not always regularized as
indicated by majority who reported that their stipend is less often regular. An
overwhelming majority did said that their community and their families were happy with
them receiving the stipend. However, Limited hostility was noted in regard to withdrawal
of support, maltreatment by significant others and being spoken of negatively by
community members. As to the cost of transport, a few had challenges spending much of
their stipend on transport.
54
4.3.1 Regularity of the cash Transfer Stipend
Respondents were further asked to indicate whether they receive the cash regularly after
every two months as per the programme guideline. The responses are assummarized in
the table below.
Table 7: Regularity of receiving cash transferby older persons
Frequency of receiving cash transfer
Less often
Frequency
104
Percent (%)
67.5
Quite often
Always
Non responses
Total
43
4
3
154
28
2.6
1.9
100
A majority (67.5%) said they received KES 4,000 less often. Some of the beneficiaries
did not know why they did not receive their stipend as per the cycle while others said that
they were informed that the release of money had been delayed. Though that was the
case, respondents informed that their stipends were always backdated to the last payment
cycle in case of a delay. The key informant at the secretariat confirmed this clarifying that
sometimes funds are not released on time from the treasury hence affecting the regularity
of payment cycles and that in the event that the delays occurred, the stipend is backdated
so that beneficiaries are paid amount equivalent to the skipped months.
The lack of consistency of the cash transfer impacts on the predictability of the fund an
objective which the programme aims to achieve. The households are also likely to be
constrained as far as planning for spending is concerned.
4.3.2 Hostility from the community or household members for being a beneficiary
The questions posed to ascertain hostility narrowed on: withdrawal of support by
significant others, maltreatment and overdependence on the older person because
benefiting from cash transfer.
55
Table 8: Incidenceof hostilityfrom the community and or relatives to the beneficiary
older person-2012
Presence of hostility
Yes
No
Non responses
Total
Frequency
11
129
14
154
Percent (%)
7.1
83.8
9.1
100
While a minority (7.1%) of the respondents said that they did receive hostility, a majority
(83.8 %) did not receive any. However, about 9.1 percent of respondents did not provide
any answer to this question
The following were reported among the 7.1 percent cases that exhibited hostility.
About3.9 percent respondents indicated withdrawal of support by significant others when
they started receiving the stipend. Another 1.9 percent indicated having been maltreated
by either the community or significant others. Finally 1.9 percent of respondents reported
of the community having spoken negatively about them when they started receiving the
cash transfer stipend
The limited number of hostile cases can be deduced to mean that the programme is
largely accepted by the community. Acceptance by community members could be an
indication of enhanced awareness of the programme, good security of the area and or
acceptance of the elderly and the elderly programme by the Makueni community.
4.3.3 Distance from pay point
The research sought to know whether beneficiaries experienced any challenge as far as
the distance to pay point is concerned. Questions regarding the means of transport to the
pay point and how much is spent to and from the paypoint were asked. Being aged,
walking by foot or using a boda boda (motor bykes/bicycles ) is considered a challenge.
On the other hand long distance means spending much money to the extend that the
stipend might not benefit the household. The following were looked into as challenges
related to distance
56
i). Means of transport to the pay point.
Beneficiaries reported using public behicles (93%). A minority (3.2%) uses boda boda
and another (2.6 %) go by foot. However 1.2 percent of the respondents beneficiaries did
not provide any response.
ii). Amount spend on transport to the pay point
Table 9. Table showing amount of transport to the paypoint-2012
Amout (KES)
400 and below
401-800
801-1200
Total
Frequency
121
32
1
154
Percent (%)
78.6
20.8
0.6
100
Though majority (78.6%) indicated using public vehicles and spending less than KES
400, almost a quota of the respondents (21.8 %) indicated spending more that KES 401. It
is evident from the table that there are those whose who incur up to between KES 800 to
1,200 for transport alone. When much of the stipend is spend on transport the ultimate
effect of the cash transfer to the household is drastically reduced.
4.4Impact of cash transfer programme on the welfare of the elderly and their
households.
This was the key objective of the research and aimed at establishing the impact of cash
transfer on beneficiaries of cash transfer programme for the elderly. Focus was on the
welfare of the older persons specifically in regard to: food security, health, clothing,
shelter, education support of school going household members, access to goods and
services on credit, social inclusion and household micro-investments.
With view to establishing impact, the research compared findings from analysis of
targeting and registration forms in cases where the welfare indicators were available. In
instances where welfare indicators were not available in the 2009 data, the research
controlled for variables. The control was mainly in regard to other sources of income
other than cash transfer programme.
57
The research found cash transfer as the main source of income. Income from other
sources amounted to a relatively small amount (KES, 1,089)compared to cash transfer
stipend which is KES 2,000 per month.
Significant impact is seen in household food security, clothing, social inclusion, enhanced
access to goods and services on credit, shelter and education of school going household
members. Priority in spending cash transfer largely went to food, shelter and education of
household members
Presented below are the findings in regard to households’ other sources of income, use
and prioritization of cash transfer and finally on the impact of cash transfer on older
persons wellbeing.
4.4.1 Other sources of income of the household other than from cash transfer.
The research also assessed other sources of income of the older persons’ households so as
to attribute any significant impact to the cash transfer. This is as presented in the
comparative bar graph below.
Graph 3: Mean income from other Sources -2012
450.00
415.20
400.00
325.30
Mean income in KES
350.00
300.00
250.00
185.80
200.00
162.70
150.00
100.00
50.00
0.00
Agriculture
Employment
Donations
Remittance
It can be observed from the graphical presentation that the mean income from other
individual sources is less than KES 500 with the total mean monthly income from other
58
sources coming to approximately KES 1,089. This therefore implies that majority of the
household income is from cash transfer since the monthly stipend is KES 2,000. This
amount surpasses the cumulative amount from other sources.
4.4.2 Uses and prioritization of the use of cash transfer by beneficiary household.
Uses of cash transfer were seen in terms of basic household necessities to include: food,
shelter, clothing, medical care, micro investments, water and sanitation.
Table 10: Uses of cash transfer by beneficiaries
Type of use
Food
Education Health Shelter Clothing Small
Water and
Investments Sanitation
N=101
N=82
N=96
N=128
N=88
N=114
N=152
Number of
households
152
101
82
96
128
88
Leisure
114
18
Having known how the households spend their money, the research further sought to
establish what the household considers a priority when it comes to spending of cash
transfer.
Table 11: Prioritization of the use of cash transfer by beneficiary households
Ranking
according to
priority of
spending
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Total
respondents
Clothing
Shelter
N=110
N=92
1
45
40
15
4
3
1
1
110
18
14
18
30
5
4
2
1
92
Small
investments
N=79
0
17
11
18
18
11
4
0
79
Food
Education
N=104
N=152
121
22
5
4
0
0
0
0
152
29
15
12
15
11
9
3
10
104
Leisure
Health
N=19
N=77
0
0
0
2
2
3
6
6
19
Remittance
N=19
15
35
10
5
3
4
3
2
77
The findings reveal that the older persons cash transfer is basically spend on basic needs.
According to DFID (2005), initial evaluation of Kenya’s OVC-CT programme suggested
59
0
4
3
0
0
4
2
6
19
that the money had been spent on: food, clothing, shoes, medical expenses and minor
household purchases. In so far as ranking of use of the stipend is concerned, a majority
(121) indicated food as their number one need to consider in spending their cash transfer.
This is followed by education (29 respondents), then shelter (18 respondents) followed by
health (15 respondents). One case indicated clothing as their number one priority. In rank
number two and three clothing came the highest with (45) and (40) respondents
respectively. Leisure was pointed least with a total of 19 respondents ranking it but
placing it at the rear or near rear.
These findings relate to the framework of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory in the
sense that majority of the respondents rated food as their first thing to spend on when
cash transfer is received. Other areas that were identified as a priority are education of
household members, shelter, clothing and health. All of these needs fall under
physiological and safety needs according to Maslow. Leisure which probably falls under
esteem needs was least ranked with majority not rating it at all.
From the findings above it is apparent that food, education and shelter respectively were
placed high by majority household. Poor households tend to meet survival needs like
food and this could be the reason why majority (121) ranked food a priority to spend on.
As far as education is concerned, one might wonder why education is not a need for
survival yet a comparable good number identified it as a priority. It is hereby arguable
that education being one of the imperative gates to better livelihood and could therefore
be part of the reasons for directing household resources including cash transfer towards
its spending. One old woman said that he would not like to see her grandchildren stay
home as others went to school and hence she ensures that their fees are paid before
thinking of other needs. Humans need warmth and a cover to survive and hence the
rationale of spending first on shelter.
According to Soares et al, (2008) Cash transfer programme are seen to provide steady
and reliable source of income that can have significant effects upon the capacity of
households to invest in human and physical capital, and overcome the threat of a long
term, persistent poverty. Receipt of cash transfers provide small amounts of capital for
60
investment in productive activities, giving the recipients opportunity to not only protect
but also improve their economic wellbeing .(Vincent and Freeland [ND).
Being open ended, questions on the use and ranking of the cash transfer programmes
brought out data regarding the impact of cash transfer on the wellbeing of the older
person. In their explanation of the use of the fund and their priorities for spending, a
wealth of qualitative welfare indicators in relation to: clothing, education of household
members, and health of the older person among others came out strongly from the
responses on the use and prioritization of the cash transfer stipend.
4.4.3Findings on impact of Cash transfers on the welfare of the elderly and their
households.
Impact was assessed by assessing such welfare indicators like: food security and
nutrition, health of the older person, credit worthiness/ability to access goods on credit by
virtue of being a recipient of cash transfer, social inclusion and economic sustainability of
the households upon ending of the programme.
4.4.3.1 Food security and nutrition.
In this case the research focused on the number of times the household is able to have
meals. The targeting tool was useful in establishing the food security of the household
because a question on the same was asked during 2009 targeting. The responses at the
start and three years of the programme are as summarized in the graphs below
61
Graph 4: Number of meals per day by beneficiary households
Number of meals per day 2009
Number of meals in a day 2012
48.7%
50
40
32%
30
20
85.3%
90
Number of household (%)
Number of houholds(%)
60
19.3%
10
0
once in a
day
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
14.7%
10
0
Two Times Three Times
Two times
Three times
Evidence from baseline shows that majority of the households (48.7%) had two meals in
a day 32 percent had approximately three meals in a day and another 18.3 percent had one
meal in a day. Analysis of impact assessment shows a positive change in the number of
days the households access their daily meal. A smaller (14.7%) percentage indicated their
ability to access more than two meals while majority 85.3 percent indicated their ability
to access three meals in a day. This change can be associated with the cash transfer
considering the act that majority of the beneficiaries had their stipend spend on food.
Hart, (2009) defines food security as availability at all times of adequate world supplies
of basic food stuffs to sustain steady expansion of food consumption and to offset
fluctuations in production. Relating to Hart’s definition, the research saw a significant
change as far as the frequency of food consumption is concerned.
Past researches indicate significant impact of cash transfers to households’ food security
and nutrition. According to a research done by Barrientos and Lloyd-Sherlock (2002), in
South Africa, having a recipient of social pension in a household has been correlated to a
three to four centimeter increase in height among children
62
Sources of household food
Most of the households (76%) said that they mainly sourced their food from the market
followed by own farm (13.6%), relief food (7.8%). A minority (2.6%) of the household
indicated getting from other sources which they did not specify. Access to cash transfers
give them the advantage of getting food from the market; a source which was mainly
mentioned by many households.
The fact that majority obtain their food from the market means that lack of income denies
them the very opportunity of obtaining food. Lack of regular income or cash threatens the
food security of poor household. It can therefore be argued out that regularity in the
disbursement of cash transfer fund can have positive influence on household food
security.
To establish the nutrition status of the household, questions on nutrition were posed and
the responses are as presented below.
63
Table 12: Nutrition of respondent’s households-2012
Type of food
Daily
at least once
a week
at least
once a
month
1.3%
4
when it is
available
Total
(%)
Total
Number
2.6%
2 100
154
Cereals and
Cereal
Products
Milk and
Milk
Products
Sugar and
Honey
94.8%
146
1.3%
2
64.9%
100
27.3%
42
2.6%
4
5.2%
8 100
154
82.5%
127
11.7%
18
1.9%
3
3.9%
6 100
154
Oils and Fats
Meat &
Poultry
Pulses
,legumes
,nuts
Roots &
Tubers
Vegetables
Fruits
Fish and sea
Food
Miscellaneo
us (e.g.
sweets)
72.7%
112
24.7%
38
2.6%
4
0
100
154
3.2%
5
3.2%
5
80%
123
13.6%
21 100
154
54.6%
84
24%
37
9.7%
15
11.7%
18 100
154
16.2%
25
31.2%
48
24%
37
28.6%
44 100
154
51.9%
19.5%
2.6%
80
30
4
36.4%
39%
8.5%
56
60
13
6
9
33
7.8%
35.7%
67.5%
12 100
55 100
104 100
154
154
154
8.5%
13
11%
17
3.9%
5.8%
21.4
%
35.7
%
55
44.8%
69 100
154
-
Majority (94.8%) households have cereal and cereal products daily followed by sugar and
honey (82.5%), oils (72.7%) and then milk and milk products (64.9%). From the table
above the intake of most vitamins and proteins is indicated by a few respondents as a
daily meal. Meat is mainly taken at least in a week (80%). Fish and sea food is a rare food
for the respondents
It is however difficult to show how the households fared during baseline because there
was no question asked to ascertain the nutrition of the household. From the findings, it
can be observed that the households still do not have a balanced food intake as shown by
the majority (80%) respondents for instance who indicated using meet at least once a
month.
64
Good nutritional practices are very important during old age for health development and
defense from diseases (Ondigi and Ondigi, 2012). It can be an adversity for an elderly to
have imbalanced diet and more so when they miss a meal considering the fact that they
are in their physically degenerative stages of life where food is depended majorly upon to
build and protect the body.
4.4.3.2Household Assets
The research assessed household assets in reference to livestock ownership specifically
increment in the number of; sheep, goats and cows. The focus on livestock was informed
by availability of baseline information on livestock as an household asset.
Graph 5: Number of Livestock owned
Number of livestock owned 2012
3
2.5
Average number of livestock
Average nmber of livestock
Number of livestock owned 2009
2.39
2
1.5
1
0.6
0.33
0.5
0
Goats
Sheep
Cows
3.5
3.12
3
2.5
2
1.5
0.71
1
0.35
0.5
0
Goats
Sheep
Cows
The findings saw a relative change in livestock numbers. Respondents too associated the
increment in livestock number to spending of cash transfer. Older persons were eager to
show the livestock bought using the cash cash transfer. Most of the household said they
have so far bought three (3) to seven (7) goats with their transfers since their enrolment to
the cash transer programme. A sizeable nnumber too reported having bought local
chicken. Yet a few others said their goats had multiplied but they had resold them to
enable them pay school fees for their children.
On purchase of livestock, one woman said;
65
‘’One woman from Kinze sub-Location said that she used her cash
transfer stipend to purchase three goats. One of it was sold to pay
school fees for my granddaughter and another one died. The one left
now has given birth to five young ones. I am planning to buy a cow
when I get my next stipend.’’
Another 74 year old man said;
‘’I have two goats and one cow bought using government money for the
elderly. These goats and cow and more that I ask God to enable me to
buy will feed this family in future. Here in this region, we put seeds down
(plant) and sometimes we don’t get any harvest from it. Having livestock
especially goats which are resistant to drought are useful during dry
seasons.’’
According to Arnold and Margaret (2010) cash transfers have reduced household
vulnerability through asset accumulation and more stable income flows that allow them
to better plan their expenses, pay their debts and get credit more easily, resulting in
increasing consumption of goods and service. This confirms the above findings. From the
statements above, it can be noted that such accumulated household assets can relief the
family from strains should pressing need occur for instance respondents were able to
indicate selling goats bought using their transfers to offset school fees arrears. At the
same time household assets are added.
4.4.3.3 Shelter
The graph below (6 and 7) presents a contrast of respondents shelter characteristics in
year 2009 when most of the recipients of the cash transfer were enrolled into the
programme and in 2012 when the research was carried out.
66
Graph 6: Major construction material -2009
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Roof Material
73.4
26
0.5 0.1
Number of houselds(%)
70.7
80
70
60
50
40
30 22.8
20
4.2
1.8 0.5
10
0
Number of houselds(%)
Floor Material
Mud/Cow dung
Grass/sticks/makuti
Stone/brick/block…
wood
Iron sheets
Number of houselds(%)
Wall material
80.1
%
90
80
70
60
50
17.6
40
30
%
20
1%
10 0.7% 0.5%0.1%
0
Graph 7: Major construction material -2012
16.5
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
120
72.7
27.3
Number of houselds(%)
83.5
Number of houselds(%)
Number of houselds(%)
90.0
80.0
70.0
60.0
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
Roof material
Floor material
Wall material
100
96.1
80
60
40
20
3.9
0
Iron
Sheets
Grass
Graph 6 shows the status of dwelling characteristics of targeted older persons in the year
2009. On construction material of the floor, it shows a high percentage of households
which had the wall done using stone, block, brick or cement. During data collection, it
was observed that the most available material for wall construction was particularly
homemade bricks and locally available stones. An example is as illustrated in the photo
below.
67
Photo showing the wall material of a grandmother’s house in Makueni(taken in 2009)
Retrieved from the Department of Gender and Social Development-Makueni
Most of the houses were made up of mud/cow dung as floor material. The commonest
roofing material was iron sheets with a majority at 80.1 percent using it for roofing. It is
worth noting that building materials especially for homemade for bricks are readily
available. This could explain why the general condition of houses in either of the research
periods were generally good
Although majority of the households had relatively good shelter before benefitting from
the programme, findings of 2012 reveals an improvement in shelter especially on the
roofing and the wall. Most of the respondents showed their houses having been built a
fresh using the stipend and a majority renovated/improved through plastering the house
with a cement coating either on the floor and roof. Others still revealed having bought
iron sheets to replace their previously grass thatched houses. Asizeable number of
respondents (96) indicated having spend their cash transfer on shelter and another 18
ranked it as as number one priority item to consider when it came to spending their
stipend on. Older persons were quite excited to show the houses that they have put up
using their stipend.
68
Some of the photos that show the conditions of houses before and after the interventions
are as shown
Figure 1: House before receiving cash transfer
Figure 2: House built using cash transfer (iron
roofed)
4.4.3.4Health conditions of respondents.
There was no baseline data to show the condition of elderly before enrolling for the
programme. However, qualitative statements by some respondents depicts and
improvement in overall health of the older person. A general rating of respondents’ health
showed that majority of the elderly were in good condition.
Respondents were asked to rate their health condition and responses are as presented in
the table below
Table 13: Health conditions of respondents-2012
Health condition
Very good
Good
Poor
Very poor
Total
Frequency
24
91
30
9
154
Percent (%)
15.6
59.1
19.5
5.8
100
69
Whereas the highest ratio of beneficiaries said their health was in good health, it could
not be directly linked to the effects of cash transfer. This is because, the research made an
assumption at the design stages of the existence of baseline survey findings from the
MOGSD hence obtain the health status of the older person as at the time of enrolment in
2009. However, there was no such information available.
On the other handagoodnumber of respondents (82)indicated using cash transfer in
meeting medical expenses of self and household members. According to DFID (2005)
social transfers enhances those living in extreme poverty to access health services and
pay for medicines and associated costs. In Namibia for instance, pensioners spent 13.8
percent on the cash they receive on healthcare for themselves and also to cover the other
members of the household (Devereux, 2001)
While commenting of his inability to cope should the cash transfer programme
end, one 77 years old man from Waia Location said;
“I was bedridden before the government enrolled me to this
programme. I had a disease that blocked my urinal system. When I got
my first money, I went to hospital and I was given medicine and a tube
that has helped open the urinary system. I can now walk and even go
in person to collect the money from Tawa post office. When I get my
stipend, I go to see the doctor for checkups. I live with two orphaned
children one of whom has two children born out of wedlock, my wife
looks after my granddaughter’s children while she is away in Nairobi
doing housekeeping work to support our food needs. Basically this cash
transfer is for my health and stopping it will mean the end of my life”.
It can be seen from the statement that the cash transfer as done substantially
well in so far meeting the health needs of older persons is concerned.
70
4.4.3.5Education support of household members
A majority (101) used their cash transfer in meeting the education needs of their
household members.A 68 years old woman beneficiary of Waia Location while
explaining her use of the stipend on education said;
‘’I help my grandchildren in both primary and secondary. Two of my
granddaughters are in Mweasecondary day school while three are in
primary. I help a lot with the payment of fees for those in high school. The
children belong to my son but he is a drunkard and does not have
adequate money. I love my grandchildren because they help me a lot.
The head teacher does not send my grandchildren home because he is
aware that I pay when I get my stipend. At some point the stipend was
delayed and we were given a cumulative amount of KES 8,000. The
amount helped me a lot in settling the fees arrears.’’
This and many other responses from older persons revealed that in so far as cash transfer
use on education is concerned, the stipend is mainly spend on paying fees partly or
wholly, purchase of school uniforms, pocket money and in buying school stationeries like
pens and books. From the above statement it can be argued that cash transfers boost the
credit worthiness of recipient older person, who act the roles of household heads/or
caregivers, to the extend that a school going child is retained in school even at a time
when funds are not available. This therefore could enhance retention among school going
children and hence uninterrupted learning.
According to Barrientos and Lloyd (2002), there is evidence in Brazil to show that old
age pensions have helped to increase school attendance. A research done in Namibia by
Devereux (2001), shows that old age pension is spent on children’s education.
4.4.3.6Clothing and beddings
Clothing is a source of warmth at the same time a boost of self esteem. A lot of older
persons (128) used their stipend on their clothing and that of their hosehold members that
71
depend on them. It was placed higher with eighteen older persons putting at number one
and 45 percent at number two. There was no data available to ascertain the situation of
the elderly as of 2009 but the respondents brought out vividly while expounding on their
use of the cash transfer. A seventy seven (77) year old woman from kathonzweni
joyously said;
‘’Look at me. I am now smartly dressed. I have bought new dresses using
my stipend. When we go inside there I will show you my new dresses.
Initially I could not afford good cloths because I used to spend most of my
income on food. Now I can go to church and even speak before the
gathering because I feel I am smartly dressed and people respect me
and my opinion.’’
It can be unearthed from the statement above that acquiring clothing not only
gives warmth but also enhance the esteem of the person who has acquired.
The acquisition of basic needs therefore adds to other imperative human needs
of psychosocial nature for instance
4.4.3.7Access to goods and services on credit
The research sought to know whether respondents were able to access goods and services
on credit and if so to approximate the percentage amount obtained from specified sources
including cash transfer. The research probed on such items as; obtaining household items
like: sugar, soap, water, maize flour and such services as: medical attention, education of
a school going child among others as some of the goods and services that a household can
access through credit. The following were the replies.
72
Chart 2: Access of goods and services on credit by beneficiary households
37.7%
Not
60.4%
Yes
1.9%
Non-response
Majority of the respondents (60.4%) said that they could access services on credit, 37.7
percent said they could not because they either did not like borrowing or did not have the
money to settle the debt. Respondents who indicated accessing credit were further
queried to establish the sources of money they rely on for settling the debt. As to the
sources of settling the debt, the following were pointed out.
Graph 8: Approximation in percentage of source of money used to settle debt from
Number of household (%)
goods and services bought on credit-2012
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
85.7%
66.9%
60.9%
14.3%
13%
0-20
From own
business/farm
produce
15.4%
15.5%
21-40
15.5%
4.9%
41-60
From
remmitance
1
cash transfer
5.8%
61-80
81-100
It is evident from the graph that cash transfer was awarded 81-100 percent by a majority
( 60.9%) as the main source of settling debt. A few household relied the least on income
from remittences, farm and or own business to settle debts as shown by majority of the
73
respondents who rated them at the lowest percentage of between 0-20 percent. This is
corroborated by DFID (2002), who pointed out that the provision of a guaranteed and
predictable minimum income provides them with a level security and increase their
ability to plan for the future including accessing and settling credits.
4.4.3.8Joining social groups
The research sought to establish whether older persons are members of any social group
as a result of being beneficiaries of cash transfer. The findings were as follows;
Chart 3: Beneficiaries who joined social groups since enrolment into the cash
transfer programme-2012
32.5%
did not join
any group
61.7%
joined a group
0.6%
Those who did
not respond
When older persons were asked whether they had joined a social group ever since
becoming beneficiaries of cash transfer, a majority (61.7%) said they did, 32.5 percent
said they did not while 0.6 percent did not respond to the question. Most of the social
groups formed were merry go rounds and welfare groups. During pay days, members of
merry go rounds contribute to each other with the aim of engaging in such activities as
purchasing goats, improving shelter and water storage.
One 75 older person from Magongo village of Kivani Sub-Location said that she was in a
Self Help Group (called MumoWangui)consisting of 56 members, 18 of which are
beneficiaries of the Older Persons Cash Transfer Programmes. The group was said to be
engaged in table banking, basketry using sisal ropes, improving shelter and buying each
other goats and beddings. In their current activity, they were buying each other plastic
tanks and they had reached the 34th person. The 75 year old lady said that her joining the
group was motivated by the fact that he was receiving regular money from the
government. Welfare groups like any other organized group enhances individual
74
bargaining power in that they can be able to access other group benefits like community
grants. Other benefits would entail help by group members in case a member has a social
or monitory problem.
Coleman (1994) opines that social capital is productive; making it possible the
achievement of certain ends that in its absence would not be possible. The fact that older
persons are engaged in group activities (merry go round and welfare groups) gives them
the advantage to access other benefits which they would otherwise have not. Notable is
ability of the older person to add assets to the household in the form of goats, cows and
the like. The acquisition of assets, though small, is a social capital to the older person in
the sense that they can be respected by community members as persons who own
property.
4.4.3.9 Coping mechanism upon withdrawal of the programme
This question was meant to ascertain the sustainability of the programme.Respondents
were asked to explain how they would cope if the government of Kenya decides to end
the support of the elderly through cash transfer.
Graph 9: Coping mechanisms of households (%) when cash transfer programme is
Number of households (%)
withdrawn-2012
56.6%
60
50
40
30
20%
20
10%
7%
6.4%
Relief
Relatives
10
0
Agriculture
Micro
investments
Difficult to cope
About 10 percent said that they would sustain their livelihood with the small investments
(purchased goats, cow and chicken) bought using the cash transfer 20 percent said that
75
they would continue with their peasant farming, 7 percent indicated reverting to reliance
on relief assistance. Another 6.4 percent said that they will rely on relatives for support.
Larger percentage (56.6%) said that they would not be able to cope when the cash
transfer is withdrawn.
It is interesting to note that less old persons (6.4%) indicated seeking support of family
members/relatives when the stipend is withdrawn. The effects of modernization and
urbanization have resulted to over emphasis on the nuclear family leaving out on the
traditional safety nets by the extended family. The ever pressing needs force able
household members to seek for employment from the urban areas leaving behind the
elderly. KNCHR (2009) attributes this to the breakdown of the traditional family support
structures so that the primary focus of the family is on the nuclear and not the extended
family. Such finding confirms the need of the family to take care of the older person as
expressed in the National Policy on Older Persons and Ageing and the AU Policy
Framework and Plan of Action on Ageing.
Those who said they would seek help from relief food indicated that their families were
too poor to support them. This is what a 77 year old older woman said
“I was surviving on well-wishers before the government included me
in this programme. In the event that it decides to take it back, I will
just rely on relief food to survive. My children are unable to sustain
my needs because they currently have difficulty meeting their own
needs”
About 10 percent of the respondents who used part of their money to add themselves
small household assets argued that they will use their small investments to meet their
basic needs when the fund is taken from them. While expounding on this, one 75
years old woman said the following statement
“Together with some other few older persons who receive the cash
transfer, we have formed a merry go round and bought each other
goats. Now I have five goats. This will sustain me if this fund is going
to be taken away from us.”
76
Agriculture is another option in which respondents said they will revert to if they cease to
benefit from the stipend. Many who mentioned agriculture said that the means is not so
sustainable because sometimes they plant and fail to harvest because of drought and since
they didn’t have any option, they will simply opt for. A 69 year old man had this to say.
“I pray that they don’t take away the fund from us. If they do then I will
just continue with my peasant farming”
A majority (56.6%) said that it was difficult for them to cope without the fund. Those
who said they would not be able to cope cited health, frailty and lack of money as their
main reasons behind their inability to sustain their household should the cash transfer
This could point to the fact that Eastern Region is a semi-arid zone and peasant
agriculture may not be quite reliable to augment the household with farm food. Since
majority of the households rely on market foods, a sizeable amount of the transfer could
be spend on basic household need as opposed to income generating activities hence the
inability of the household to sustain their households without the stipend.
Another reason relate to the fact that older persons are in their less productive stages in
life and thus the fear that their ageing bodies may not enable them to engage in other
income generating activities.
The rationale for most social protection programmes for the elderly is related to the
challenges that come with aging. Most social assistance programmes like cash transfer
does not give conditional assistance to adults. In Kenya for instance the OVC-CT
programme is advanced on condition that the household sends all children to school.
Kenya’s OPCT programme is non-conditional. Brazil’s older persons cash transfer
programme is also unconditional. Soares et al (2006) says this about Brazil’s cash
transfer of the elderly ‘the benefit is independent of previous to previous contribution
to social security system and is not subject to any conditionality’. The government of
South Africa equally implements a non-contributory pension scheme to older men
above 65 years and older women above 60 years of age (KNCRH 2009:20)
National, Regional and international instruments emphasis the need to protect the
interest and wellbeing of older persons through development of policies and
77
programmes that address their needs. These include the AU Policy Framework of and
Plan of Action on Ageing of 2003 which informed the formulation of the Kenya
National Policy on Older Persons and Ageing and subsequently Social Protection
programmes for the elderly. The Constitution of Kenya recognizes older persons of
Kenyaasa vulnerable constituent who deserve to be taken care of by the state.
78
5.0 CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This chapter basically presents the summary or conclusions of the study. It makes
recommendations based on the findings of the study as presented in chapter four of this
paper. It further makes recommendation for future research related to the topic of study
and emanating from existing gaps and on potential areas of research.
5.1 Conclusions
The research observed that the older persons cash transfer programme is a targeted
programme which reached up to approximately 2.5 percent of all older person above 65
years as of November 2012. However, this percentage is seen to be small considering the
fact that 56.4 percent of older persons above 60 years are poor according to the Kenya
integrated Budget Survey of 2005/2006 (KNBS, 2007). Though the coverage in terms of
numbers is small there is a considerable evidence of positive impact in the livelihoods of
beneficiaries.
The research used secondary data in establishing the baseline status of beneficiaries of
the OPCT programme, and primary sources of data including interview schedule, key
informant interviewand observation to establish;
1. How cash transfer reaches beneficiaries from the highest level to the beneficiaries
in Makueni County
2. The challenges faced by the older person in accessing and as beneficiaries of cash
transfer and;
3. The impact of cash transfer to the welfare of the older person and their household
How Cash Transfer Flow from the highest level to beneficiaries
The study found out that the Ministry of Gender Children and Social Development
headquarters whose current physical office is the NSSF building, processes cash transfer
for the elderly by requesting for funds from the exchequer account then wires to PCK
which is the disbursement agent of the fund. PCK re-channels the money to their
79
branches which are identified by the older person through the District Gender and Social
Development officer as their nearest pay points. The DGSDO through the assistance of
location committees and local administration inform beneficiaries of the dates of payment
upon which they turn up in tune with the informed dates.
It also revealed that some older persons travel a long distance in order to reach the pay
points hence forced to spend more money for transport.
Challenges of Cash Transfer programme to beneficiaries
The research made an assumption that because the programme was unable to reach to so
many elderly, those excluded would feel bad for those who receive or household
members may demonstrate withdrawal of support. Interestingly, only 7.1 percent (11)
indicated having received hostility with a majority reporting to have experienced
withdrawal of support. A few others indicated having been maltreated by the community
and being spoken of negatively by the community members by virtue of benefiting from
the cash transfer programme. This paper therefore concludes that the programme is
widely accepted by the community as demonstrated by the majority who did no face any
hostility.
Impact of Cash Transfer programme on the welfare of older persons
Recipient households were found to spend their cash transfer on basic needs including:
food, shelter, clothing, education of household members, remittance, water and sanitation
and leisure. Priority was seen to be given to food, education of school going children and
shelter.
Cash transfer was found to have impact on the welfare of the older person and that of
their households. Evidence of impact was seen in such areas as: health of the older
person, food security of the household, access of goods and services and a demonstrated
enhancement in credit worthiness of the older person, ability of older person to join social
groups, education of household members, shelter and clothing.
5.2 Recommendations of the study
In light of the above and other findings of the study, the study recommends the following
80
1. That based on the impact that cash transfer brings about in enhancing the wellbeing of
the older person, the research strongly recommend to the government of Kenya to
increases funding of the programme in order to facilitate further expansion to reach to
all the older persons in the Country who meet the criteria for support.
2. This paper confirmed that all the older persons interviewed were beneficiaries of the
older persons cash transfer entitled to KES 4,000 after every two months. However, it
came out clearly during the research that the stipend is not always regularized (every
two months) as the guideline stipulates, though it is backdated to the previous
payment in the event that the cash is delayed. A recommendation is made to the
Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Development to ensure that the stipend is
usually regular so that beneficiaries are able to predict and hence plan to expend.
3. It was also noted that beneficiaries spend up to approximately 800 on transport to
collect their stipend. A recommendation is therefore made to the Ministry of gender,
Children and Social development to consider exploring other disbursement agents
like use of cell phones, Bank agents or to PCK to consider giving mobile services to
older persons in programme being a special case.
5.3 Recommendations for further research
1. This study focused on Makueni County alone. An expansive study that includes
more counties and likewise older persons would bring out more on the impact of
cash transfer on the welfare of the older person than one county hence a
recommendation for an expansive study
2. The research focused on Cash transfer and its impact on the welfare of older
persons in Makueni County. Since Makueni is a rural setting, this paper
recommends another study in the urban areas to bring out comparative findings.
3. The research revealed that older persons experience challenges in assessing their
stipend and that the disbursement agent of the fund is solely the PCK. It therefore
recommends a research aimed at assessing the effectiveness of the PCKin
disbursing cash transfer stipends to the elderly with view to recommending
improvements and or making recommendation on exploring more reliable agents.
81
Annex 1: Photo Gallery
Above: A woman beneficiary waits to be paid in Makueni post office
Below:Beneficiaries line up in makueni post office to receive their stipend
82
Left: A woman beneficiary of Magongo village
shows some of the goats bought using the
stipend
83
Annex 11: Interview schedule
Introduction.
My name is Emily JepkoechKimosop. I am a student at the University of Nairobi pursuing a
Master’s Degree in Arts (Sociology). I am undertaking a research on Older Persons Cash
Transfer programme. My research aims at establishing the impacts of the OPCT programme on
the welfare of older persons in programme. The purpose of my research is purely academic.
The reason why I have chosen you as my interviewee is because you are a beneficiary of the
programme. I wish to assure you that whatever information you will give me regarding yourself
and the Older Persons cash Transfer programme will be treated with due confidentiality. Thank
you
PART A: GENERAL INFORMATION
1. Location…………………………..
2. Age of the older person ………………………… (indicate the number of years)
3. Sex………….
(a) Male
4. Marital status…… (a)
Married
(b) Female
(b)Separated (c) Divorced
(d)Widowed
5. Education level
(a) Illiterate
(b) Semi illiterate (without formal education but able to read and or write)
(c) Primary level
(d) Secondary level
(e) College and above
6. Main occupation…………………………………………..
7. (i)Family composition
S/N
o.
Relationship
with you
Gender
M
F
Occupation (specify the level
Economic status
of education if they are of
Earne Helper Dependen
school going age. Indicate
whether any has dropped
r
ts
out of school.
84
(ii) Give reasons for dropping out of school if
any………………………………………………..................................................................
AWARENESS OF THE OLDER PERSONS CASH TRANSFER
8. Are you aware of the GOK’s cash transfer Programme for the elderly?
(a) Yes
(b) No
9 (i). Are you a recipient of the Cash Transfer fund?
(a)Yes
(b) No
(ii). If yes, how much do you receive after every two months...........................................
10. (i)Do you receive the cash transfer regularly after every two months
(a) Not at all (b) less often (c) Quite often (d) Always
(ii)What is the reason for your choice in 10(i)
above………………………………………………………………………………………
11. (i) Have you received any aggression from the community and or members of your
household because of being a beneficiary GOKs cash transfer for the elderly?
(a) Yes
(b) No
(ii)If yes, tick (✓) the following possible responses appropriately
Type of aggression
Withdrawal of support
Stealing of the cash
Maltreatment(e.g beating or any kind of physical of
verbal abuse)
Overdependence
Others. Specify…….
Response
12. What is the means of transport to the pay point?
(a) By foot (b) Bodaboda (c) public vehicle (d) Others,
specify…………………………………………………………
85
13. How much do you spent for your transport the pay point
(a) Less than 400 (b) 401-800 (c) 801-1200 (d) More than 1201
INFORMATION ON INCOME
14. On monthly basis, how much money do you get from the following?
Business
Agriculture
Employment
Contributions (harambee, gifts)
Remittances (relatives and sponsors)
Others, specify
Total amount
15. Prioritize the following according to how you spent your cash transfer (from the area
that cash transfer is mainly spent on)
a) Clothing……………………………………………………………………
b) Shelter………………………………………………………………………
c) Investments e.g. purchase of goats, cows, chicken……………………………
d) Food…………………………………………………………………………
e) Spending on children’s education…………………………………………….
f) Leisure activities………………………………………………………………
g) Health…………………………………………………………………………
h) Remittances……………………………………………………………………
16. On a daily basis, how many times do you have your meal?
17. What is the main source of food in your household?
(a) Own food (b) Purchase from the market (c) Relief food
(d) Others (specify)…………………………………………….
18. Indicate the type of food you and your household consume in the order provided
below
86
Pool
Types in the
pool(use the
nutritional
checklist)
Frequency of consumption in a month (Tick as
appropriate)
Daily
Cereals and cereal
products(e.g. maize,
spaghetti, rice, bread,
sorghum, millet)
Milk and milk products
(e.g. goat/cow-fermented
milk, milk powder.)
Sugar and honey
Oils/ fats(e.g. cooking fat
or oil, coconut, milk,
butter, ghee, margarine)
Meat, poultry (e.g. goat,
beef, chicken or their
products)
Pulses, legumes, nuts (e.g.
green grams, lentils,
cowpeas, peanut)
Roots and tubers(e.g.
sweet potatoes, cassava,
arrowroot, Irish potatoes)
87
At least
once a
week
At least
once a
month
Only when
available
Vegetables(e.g. greens, or
leafy vegetables,
tomatoes, carrots, onions)
Fruits(water melons,
mangoes, grapes, bananas,
lemon)
Eggs
Fish and sea foods (e.g.
fried/boiled/roasted fish,
lobsters)
Miscellaneous
(chocolates, spices,
sweets, beverages)
19. What is the major Construction Material of your houses (observe)
(i)
Wall…………………………..
(ii)
Floor…………………………
(iii)
Roof………………………….
20. How many Livestock to you have?
(i)
Goats………..
(ii)
Cows………..
(iii)
Sheep………..
21. How do you rate your current health condition?
88
(a) Very good
(b) Good
(c) Poor
(d) Very poor
22. (i) When you are sick, where do you often seek for treatment?
(a) Government Dispensary (b) Private hospital (c) Local medicine men/women (d)
Waiting to heal (e) Others, Specify…………………………………….
(ii)What is the reason for your choice in 22(i)
above…………………………………………………..
23. What do you spent your cash transfer on. (List the uses)
……………………………………………………
………………………………………………………..
24. Are you able to access credit facilities in your local area (e.g. from local kiosks,
groceries?)
(a) Yes
(b) No
(if No skip to 26 )
25. About what percentage (%) of income from the following do you use in settling your
credit
(a) Remittance (i.e. from relatives and sponsors)….…………………………. (%)
(b) From Own business/Sell of farm produce………………………………… (%)
(c) From Cash Transfer……………………………………..…………………. (%)
(d) Any other, Specify…………………………………………………………. (%)
26. (i) Have you participated in any training programme for fund management?
(a) Yes
(b) No
27(ii) If yes, how has the training been useful to
you……………………………………………………
28. (i) Since your enrollment in cash transfer, have you joined any social group (e.g.
women group, welfare group, social clubs, village committee, etc.?)
89
(a) Yes
(b) No
(ii)What motivated you into joining the
group………………………………………………………………………………………
29. If Cash transfer is withdrawn today, what options are you going to adopt to cope
………………………………………………………………………………………………
90
Annex III. Key informant’s interview guide for District Gender and Social
Development Officer-Makueni
Introduction
My name is Emily JepkoechKimosop. I am a student at the University of Nairobi
pursuing a Master’s Degree in Arts (Sociology). I am undertaking a research on Older
Persons Cash Transfer programme. My research aims at establishing the impact of the
OPCT programme on the welfare of older persons in programme. The purpose of my
research is purely academic. The reason why I have chosen you as my interviewee is
because you are directly involved in the implementation of the OPCT programme which
is my topic of study. It is also my assumption that you have wealth of information
regarding the programme. I wish to assure you that whatever information you will give
me regarding the Older Persons’ cash Transfer programme will be treated with due
confidentiality. Thank you.
1. How is the processing of cash transfer money done
2. How do you relate with the ministry headquarters as far as payment of the elderly
enrolled in the OPCT programme is concerned
3. How is the cash transfer disbursed from the higher level to the beneficiaries
4. Who mobilizes the beneficiaries to turn up for payment
5. How are payments of OPCT programme beneficiaries done?
6. How do you ensure that the rightful Older Persons receive their payments?
91
Annex IV: Targeting and Registration tool for the OPCT programme
Form 3.1: Registration / Recipient Targeting
REPUBLIC OF KENYA
MINISTRY OF GENDER, CHILDREN AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
HOUSEHOLD TARGETING FORM
A. GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION
1. PROVINCE
2. DISTRICT
3. DIVISION
4. LOCATION
92
5. SUB-LOCATION
6. VILLAGE
B. GENERAL INFORMATION
7. Full name of Household Head
FIRST NAME
MIDDLE NAME
8. ID. NO.
9. YEAR OF BIRTH
10. Marital Status
93
SURNAME
11. Sex
12. No. of dependants in the household
a) No. of older persons (65 years and above)
b) No. of chronically ill persons in the household
C) No. of OVCs in the household
d) No. of Persons with Disability in the household
14. Highest level of education of Household Head
1. None
2.Primary
3.Secondary
94
4.Tertiary
5.University
15. Highest level of education of household level
1. None
2.Primary
3.Secondary
4.Tertiary
5.University
16. No. of school-going children (0-17 years)
a) Nursery
F
M
b) Primary
F
M
c) Secondary
F
d) Others
M
F
C) BENEFITS FROM OTHER PROGRAMMES
18. Is the household receiving benefits from any other programme?
Yes
No
19. If yes, specify the programme.
20. What type of benefit do you receive?
95
M
a) Cash
b) In-kind
c) Others (specify)
21. How much is the benefit in Kenya shillings (Kshs) per month?
22. How frequent?
23. Have you been in any formal employment?
24. Are you receiving any pension?
96
D. DWELLING CHARACTERISTICS AND WEALTH
26. What is the major construction material of the WALLS?
MUD/COW DUNG ……………………………………………………. 1
GRASS/STICKS/MAKUTI …………………………………………... 2
STONE/BRICK/BLOCK/CEMENT …………………………………. 3
WOOD ……………………………………………………………………
4
IRON SHEETS ………………………………………………………… 5
TIN …………………………………………………………………………
6
OTHERS (SPECIFY) ………………………………………………….. 7
27. What is the major construction material of the FLOOR?
MUD/COW DUNG ……………………………………………………. 1
WOOD ……………………………………………………………………2
CEMENT …………………………………………………………………3
TILES.…………………………………………………………………… 6
OTHERS (SPECIFY) …………………………………………………. 5
28. What is the major construction material of the ROOF?
MUD/COW DUNG ……………………………………………………. 1
GRASS/STICKS/MAKUTI …………………………………………... 2
WOOD ……………………………………………………………………
BRICK/BLOCK/CEMENT ……….………………………………….
3
4
IRON SHEETS ………………………………………………………… 5
TIN …………………………………………………………………………
OTHERS(SPECIFY) …………………………………………………. 7
97
6
29. What type of TOILET does the household have?
FLUSH TOILET ………………………………………………………. 1
PIT LATRINE .………………………………………………………… 2
NONE/PAN/BUCKET ….…………………………………………...
3
OTHERS(SPECIFY) …………………………………………………. 4
30. What is the main source of drinking water used by this household?
PIPED WATER INSIDE BUILDING .…………………………….
1
PIPED WATER OUTSIDE BUILDING .………………………...
2
WATER TRUCK/VENDOR …………………………………………
3
PUBLIC TAP …………….. ……….…………………………………. 4
SPRING OR WELL …………………………………………………… 5
RIVER/LAKE/POND OR SIMILAR .………………………………
6
OTHERS (SPECIFY) …………………………………………………. 7
31. What is the household’s main source of LIGHTING fuel?
ELECTRICITY ….…………………………………………………….
1
PARAFFIN/KEROSENE .…………………………………………...
2
GAS ……………………………………………………………………… 3
FIREWOOD ……………….……….…………………………………. 4
CANDLES ……………………………………………………………… 5
OTHERS(SPECIFY) …………………………………………………. 6
32.
What is the household’s main source of COOKING fuel?
ELECTRICITY ….…………………………………………………….
1
PARAFFIN/KEROSENE .…………………………………………...
2
GAS ……………………………………………………………………… 3
FIREWOOD ……………….……….…………………………………. 4
CHARCOAL …………………………………………………………… 5
98
RESIDUE/ANIMAL WASTE/GRASS ……………………………
6
OTHERS(SPECIFY) …………………………………………………. 7
33. How many farming acres of land does this household own here or elsewhere?
None
1-3
4-5
above 5 acres
IF APPLICABLE
34. Do you own real estate property here or elsewhere?
Yes
No
35. Do you own the house that you are living in?
Yes
No
If No, how much rent do you pay?
0 – 500
501 – 1000
1001 – 1500
1500 and above
36. How many cattle does this household own?
Traditional Zebu
Hybrid
99
IF APPLICABLE
How many goats does this household own?
IF APPLICABLE
37. How many sheep does this household own?
IF APPLICABLE
38. How many pigs does this household own?
39. How many camels does this household own?
40. How many meals do you have per day?
None
One
Two
Three
41. Other poverty characteristics the household may have and are identified by the
LOC.
100
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
SURVEY CONTROL
FULL NAME OF LOC. MEMBER
DATE OF INTERVIEW (MM/DD/YY)
RESULT OF INTERVIEW: (accepted and added to waiting list or rejected with full detail
of reasons of ineligibility)
DISTRICT GENDER AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT OFFICER’S FULL NAME
101
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