THE MODERN ERA
PRESIDENTS
 Truman 1945-1953
 Eisenhower 1953-1961
 Kennedy 1961-1963
 LBJ 1963-1969
 Nixon 1969-1974
 Ford 1974-1977
 Carter 1977-1981
 Reagan 1981-1989
 Bush Sr. 1989-1993
 Clinton 1993-2001
 Bush Jr. 2001-2009
 Obama 2009-present
COLD WAR
COMMUNISM-BASIC TERMS
 “A shadow has fallen upon the scenes so lately
lighted by Allied victory…an iron curtain has
descended across the [European] continent”
(Winston Churchill).
 Iron Curtain-name given to the dividing line between
communist and non-communist nations
COMMUNISM-BASIC TERMS
 Containment-policy aimed at keeping communism from
spreading
 domino theory -idea that if one nation fell to communism,
surrounding countries would also fall
ORGANIZATIONS/PACTOMANIA
 NATO vs. Warsaw Pact
 NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) - April 1949,
democratic military alliance; alliance of western countries
against communism
 Warsaw Pact-May 1955, communist military alliance; alliance
of Eastern European countries under the control of
communism
CONTAINMENT
• Truman Doctrine (1947)-Britain advised they could no longer
support the Greek monarchy vs. attacks from Communist
rebels, nor help Turkey resist Soviet demands to est. a naval
base in Turkish territory
• Truman asked Congress to approve $400 million in aid to
Greece and Turkey
• “I believe it must be the policy of the United States to support
free peoples through economic and financial aid, which is
essential to economic stability and orderly political
processes…” (Truman).
CONTAINMENT
• Marshall Plan-1948; to assist in the economic recovery of
Europe; sent $12 billion over 4 years mostly to Britain, France
and Germany
• The financial aid sparked economic revival and prosperity in
these countries, alleviating the suf fering of many people
• “…strong European economies can resist the temptations of
communism, build strong militaries to defend themselves, and
provide good markets for products from the U.S.” (Truman).
BERLIN AIRLIFT
• Yalta Conference (WWII)-occupation zones
• After fruitless discussions with the Soviets regarding
Germany’s reunification, France, Great Britain and the
U.S. decided in the spring of 1948 to unite their zones
and est. an independent nation
• USSR responded on June 24 by denying all road, rail and
river access to Berlin
• Berlin Airlift-a massive campaign of transporting food
and supplies by plane into West Berlin; for 321 days,
planes brought thousands of tons of supplies to the
city’s residents
• Realizing the resolve of the Western nations, the
Soviets ended their blockade of Berlin in May 1949; 11
days later, West Germany was officially formed, the
Soviets responded by organizing East Germany
COLD WAR IN ASIA
• China: Nationalist Party and Chiang Kai -Shek vs. Chinese
Communist Party and Mao Tse-Tung (Mao Zedong)
• Oct. 1949-Mao Zedong announced the est. of the Communist
Peoples’ Republic of China ; by the end of the year, Mao’s
troops forced Kai-shek to flee to Taiwan
• U.S. refused to recognize the govt. and provided military aid to
Taiwan
COLD WAR IN ASIA
• The Korean War (1950-1953)
• 1950-Communist N. Koreans invaded S. Korea; under the
leadership of the U.S., troops from the U.N. entered the battle
on the side of the S. Koreans and drove the invaders out
• Seeking more gains, the U.N. troops moved into N. Korea,
drawing China into the battle; after 3 years of fighting, the
Koreans signed a cease fire in July 1953
• Cease fire re-established the 38 th parallel as the boundary
line
ARMS BUILD UP
• Arms Race-Competition between the U.S. and USSR to build
more weapons
• Development of the H-bomb (hundreds of times more powerful
than the first atomic bombs); 1952 -U.S. explodes its first;
1953-USSR does the same
• Space race-fiercely compete to launch satellites and
spacecraft
• Sputnik I-Soviets launch Oct. 1957; one month later they
launch Sputnik II-sending a dog, Laika, into space
• Jan. 1958-U.S. launches its first satellite, Explorer I
ARMS BUILD UP
• Increased spending on education and space programs in the
U.S.
• National Defense Education Act -giving federal aid to schools
and colleges, especially for projects designed to improve
instruction in math and science
• 1958-U.S. est. NASA -National Aeronautics and Space
Administration-to direct the space program
• 1961-Soviets put Yuri Gagarin into space
• U.S. took the lead in the space race in 1969 when Neil
Armstrong and “Buzz” Aldrin became the first humans to walk
on the moon
ARMS BUILD UP
• Cuba-Fidel Castro led a revolution to est. a new govt. in Cuba
in 1959; 2 years of guerrilla warfare vs. dictator Fulgencio
Batista; Pres. Eisenhower recognized the new govt.
• Castro executed more than 700 opponents of the rev. and
jailed many more; new govt. improved social programs, took
land from rich to give to the poor (nationalizing the farmland)
• U.S. had a lot to lose with the land policy -U.S. businesses
owned 40% of the sugar industry, 80% utilities, 90% mineral
resources
• Castro advised his rev. was not Communist, but the U.S. was
suspicious and applied pressure on Cuba; by acting on the
assumption the Communists already had the upper hand, they
may have ensured that fact
ARMS BUILD UP
• Cuba-before breaking of f diplomatic relations with Cuba,
Eisenhower authorized the CIA to begin training anti -Castro
Cuban exiles for an invasion of Cuba
• President Kennedy came into of fice and approved an invasion
that was to land at the Bay of Pigs on April 17, 1961-invasion
failed spectacularly; failure embarrassed the Kennedy
administration
ARMS BUILD UP
• Cuba-fearful of attack plans by the U.S., Castro sought aid
from the Soviets (Soviet leader Khrushchev)
• U.S. spy planes spotted Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba;
Kennedy responded with a blockade of the island
• Cuban Missile Crisis -October 1962; 13 days-height of the Cold
War
avoided war: Soviets agreed to recall Soviet ships and
missiles and the U.S. would remove its missiles from Turkey
and not plan to invade Cuba
THE VIETNAM CONFLICT
 The Origins: French militar y forces had established control over
French Indochina (Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos) in the 1800s -ruled
it with an iron fist and exploited the resources; began to face
resistance, especially af ter WWII
 U.S. had a dif ficult decision -on one hand, it suppor ts decolonization,
but on the other, France is an ally; Truman opted to suppor t France
to ensure a strong, anticommunist grouping
 Vietnam
Nor thern Vietnam: ( Vietnimh) will be led by Ho Chi Minh, he
embraces communism and eventually gets the Soviets to rally to his
cause of independence (Vietcong are people in South Vietnam who
are communist and loyal to the Nor th)
Southern Vietnam: will be led by Ngo Dinh Diem
 America will increase its aid to the French ($2.6 billion between
1950-1954)
THE VIETNAM CONFLICT
Major events:
 Dien Bien Phu: 1954, the French lost their 8 -yr struggle to regain
Vietnam when the Vietminh trapped a large French garrison and hold it
siege for 55 days: French surrendered
 Geneva Accords: (May 1954) France grants independence to Cambodia,
Laos and Vietnam; also divides Vietnam at the 17 th parallel into two
countries-Nor th and South Vietnam; in 1956, the countr y would hold
free elections to unify Vietnam
 1956 elections: looked as if Ho Chi Minh would win; rather than risk
losing, Diem refused to par ticipate, a move made under the suppor t of
the U.S. govt. ; by 1957, communist rebel groups were committed to
undermining the Diem govt. and uniting Vietnam under a communist
flag
 Diem was unpopular even in the South -Diem was a Roman Catholic in
an over whelmingly Buddhist nation; Diem did little to build his political
base, in fact, he did much the opposite, passing anti -Buddhist
legislation and refusing significant land reforms; his lack of suppor t
hur t the war vs. the Nor th; only the suppor t of the U.S. kept the
unpopular leader in power
THE VIETNAM CONFLICT
 Diem continued to alienate citizens; by late 1963, his regime
was in shambles; the Kennedy admin. Eventually concluded
that the South needed new leadership; working behind the
scenes, Americans plotted with anti -Diem generals to
overthrow Diem’s govt.; On Nov. 1 , 1963, Diem was removed
and was assassinated with his brother Nov. 2
THE VIETNAM CONFLICT
 Gulf of Tonkin Resolution -passed by Congress; authorized the
President “to take all necessar y measures to repel any armed
attack vs. the forces of the United States and to prevent fur ther
aggression”-gave Johnson the ability to commit troops without ever
going back to Congress and asking for a declaration of war
 Tet Of fensive-early 1968, a coordinated assault by the Nor th
Vietnamese Army on 36 provincial capitals and 5 major cities, as
well as the U.S. Embassy in Saigon; planned to take and hold the
cities until the population took up arms in their suppor t; Americans
and S. Vietnamese forces were able to repel the of fensive, however,
it was a devastating blow to Americans; it demonstrated the
communists had not lost their will or their ability to fight; a turning
point in the war
THE VIETNAM CONFLICT
 During Nixon’s presidency (1969 -1974)-the Vietnam War would
continue, but the Nixon administration would reduce the U.S.
presence and eventually completely withdraw U.S. forces
 Policy of “ Vietnamization” -reduce the burden of winning the war into
the shoulders of the Vietnamese
 Soon became apparent the South Vietnamese could not hold their
own; U.S. engaged in bombing campaigns vs. the Nor th to force
peace talks, and while there was some success, the Nor th was
dedicated to reunifying the countr y under communist rule
 Last American soldiers lef t in the spring of 1973; a little over two
years later, the South would fall to the communists
 Vietnam Conflict lasting from 1954 -1975; U.S. troops engaged from
1965-1973
 At the height in 1968, approx. 525,000 troops would be engaged
 Approximately 58,000 dead; approx. 300,000 wounded
CHINA-REVISITED
• China-Nixon pursued a policy of détente , or “easing of
tensions” with China by making trips to Beijing in 1971
(secret) and 1972 (open)
• Meetings addressed issues such as limiting US support for
Taiwanese independence, U.S. withdrawal from Vietnam and
the fate of POW’s from the Korean War
• Very popular with the American people
MIDDLE EAST
 Israel established: 1948
Palestine was under Turkish rule until WWI, League made it a
British mandate
UN General Assembly voted to partition Palestine into Jewish
and Arab states; met with fierce opposition
British mandate expired and Jewish leaders proclaimed indep.
Of Israel
 Suez Crisis-both Israel and Egypt argue for control, canal important for trade
 Camp David Accords: Carter Administration
 1978-Israel returned the Sinai to Egypt in
return for Egypt’s recognition of Israel’s right
to exist as a country
 Substantial foreign policy victory for Carter
MIDDLE EAST
 Iran (during the Carter Administration) -Iranian Revolution
 January 1979-Iran ousted a long time US ally, the Shah of
Iran, in favor of an Islamic theocracy that was hostile to
America
 November 1979-an angry mob stormed the U.S. Embassy in
Tehran and took the diplomatic staf f hostage for 444 days
 A failed rescue attempt was one more in a series of blows to
the Carter presidency: several helicopters broke down due to a
sandstorm and lack of maintenance; another helicopter flew
into a transport plane causing an explosive fire
 Oil supply to the U.S. was reduced due to the Iranian
Revolution
 Reagan negotiates their release
CENTRAL AMERICA
 Reagan Administration: Iran-Contra Af fair (first term and a half for
Reagan was marked by recover y and optimism; this scandal would shif t
the popular opinion away)
 1986-Reagan had authorized the govt. to suppor t Contra rebels in
Nicaragua against their govt. run by the communist Sandanistas
(hoping the Contras would over throw the Sandanistas)
 When Congress voted to eliminate funding for the rebels, the Reagan
Admin. Used funds it earned from selling arms to Iran to finance the
Contras (shed doubt on the image of Reagan as morally vir tuous)
 Selling arms to Iran was deplorable for three reasons:
1 . Iran was a major state sponsor of terrorism
2. The goal of the sales was to gain Iranian suppor t for negotiating
release of hostages in Lebanon; Reagan maintained a policy of never
negotiating with terrorists
3. Iranian hostage crisis was still on the minds of Americans and the
thought of that countr y receiving U.S. suppor t was dishear tening
MOVEMENTS
SUBURBAN
 Baby boom
 Levittown-was built to fill a need; Levitt and Sons
perfected techniques for mass-producing housing;
assembly-line houses that were built on slabs with
precut lumber (cookie-cutter homes)-6 models of
homes
 Interstate Highway Act-Eisenhower authorized the
first federal funding of an interstate system in 1953;
further legislation passed by Congress in 1956
resulted in the Interstate Hwy. Act: authorized funds
to build 41,000 miles of highway/multilane
expressways to connect major cities
1. eased commutes from suburbs to cities
2. boosted travel and vacation industries
TECHNOLOGY




Arms/space race: Sputnik (USSR), U.S. (Explorer)
Personal computers
Expanded use of air conditioning
Television and news coverage
Civil Rights Movement
Vietnam War
Presidential debates: Kennedy vs. Nixon (1960)
via radio: Nixon wins
via television: Kennedy wins
Kennedy wins overall
WOMEN’S RIGHTS
 1960s and 1970s: second wave of feminism, or the
theory of political, social and economic equality of men
and women
 The Feminine Mystique-written by Betty Friedan,
articulated the redefinition of women and how they are
viewed; many objected to the stereotypical housewife
status; some worked and wanted more opportunities
 National Organization for Women (NOW)-dedicated itself
to winning “true equality for all women” and to attaining
“a full and equal partnership of the sexes”; set out to
break barriers of discrimination in the workplace and in
education
OTHER MINORITIES
Latinos had long faced discrimination
Influential Latino activist: Cesar Chavez; fought for
rights for farm laborers, who were among the most
exploited workers in the nation; many migrated from
farm to farm, state to state, laboring for long hours
in deplorable conditions, with no benefits: some of
the most exploited workers in the nation
United Farm Workers (UFW)-late 60s; committed to
nonviolent tactics; implemented strikes and boycotts
(of grapes) leading CA. to pass laws requiring
collective bargaining between growers and union
reps.-farmworkers had a legal basis to ask for better
working conditions
ENVIRONMENTAL
 Rachel Car son’s Silent Spring : described the deadly impact
pesticides were having on birds and other animals; did more than
point to the danger s of chemicals and toxic waste, she also insisted
that human activity drastically altered the environment and that
humans had a responsibility to protect it
 Ear th Day -nationwide protest; a WI. Senator wanted to force the
environmental issue onto the national agenda; on April 22, 1970,
close to 20 million Americans took par t in Ear th Day
 Under Nixon, Congress created the EPA -Environmental Protection
A gency in 1970; mission is to protect the “entire ecological chain”;
sought to clean up and protect the environment, as well as limit or
eliminate pollutants that pose a risk to the public’s health
 Later acts, such as the Clear Air Act -1970 (combat air pollution
limiting emissions from factories and automobiles), Clean Water
Act-1973 (limit pollution of water by industr y) and Endangered
Species Act-1973, protecting endangered plants and animals, were
passed
 Global warming
ANTI-VIETNAM WAR
 War divides America
 Draft-increasingly unpopular (Selective Service Act of 1948);
drafted more than 1 .5 million into military service during the
War
 Spread to college campuses -Kent State
 Homecoming for many soldiers -bittersweet
CONSERVATIVE MOVEMENT
Issue
Liberal Viewpoint
Conservative Viewpoint
Role of govt. in the
economy
Favored more govt.
involvement to lessen
extreme economic
inequalities through:
Social programs (often
leading to higher taxes)
Govt. regulation of
industry
Favored limited govt.
involvement in order to
stimulate economic
growth by:
Reducing taxes
Decreasing regulation of
industry
Foreign policy
Favored international
diplomacy to combat
communism in other
countries
Favored relying on our
own national defense and
actively fighting vs.
communism in other
countries
CONSERVATIVE MOVEMENT
 1964 election, Republicans nominate AZ. Senator Barr y Goldwater
to run vs. LBJ
 LBJ was wanting to continue his War on Pover ty (train the jobless,
educate the uneducated, provide healthcare for those in need) -to
continue, he needed to win the election
 Johnson believed the federal government could best regulate the
economy and promote social justice; Goldwater maintained the
federal govt. was the problem, not the solution; social and
economic issues such as racism and pover ty should not be
addressed by the federal govt. per Goldwater
 Goldwater, if elected, wanted to rein in the federal govt. by reducing
its size and restricting its activities, favored tax cuts and opposed
social welfare legislation and govt. spending on education, public
housing and urban renewal programs
 Johnson played up Goldwater’s extremism; LBJ won with a landslide
victor y
LBJ’S GREAT SOCIET Y
 Spring of 1964; Johnson’s vision for America
 Demanded “an end to pover ty and racial injustice” and oppor tunity for
ever y child
 Programs:
Medicare -basic hospital insurance for Americans 65 and older
Medicaid -basi c medical ser vices to poor and disabled Americans
Project Head Star t and Elementar y and Secondar y Education Act committed federal govt. to providing resources for individuals and schools
Public radio/ tv -Corporati on for Public Broadcasting, combined education
and enter tainment for children
National Endowment for the Ar ts -financiall y assisted ar tists, ar ts education
and ar t org.
OTHER
KEY DECISIONS
Warren Court-led by Chief Justice Earl Warren during the 1960s became the most liberal in American history; supported civil
rights, civil liberties, voting rights and personal privacy
Miranda v. Arizona (1966)-Court ruled that an accused criminal
had to be informed of his or her 5 th and 6 th Amendment rights
before being questioned (Miranda Rights)
Other key Supreme Court decisions on civil liberties and civil
rights:
Roe v. Wade (1973)-assured women the right to legal abortions;
upheld a woman’s right to choose (privacy)
Bakke decision (1978)-Bakke, a white applicant to college, had
been denied admission to a medical school, he claimed racial
discrimination; affirmative action; quotas to increase the number
of minorities (in education) are not acceptable (sided with
Bakke), but race as a factor in the admissions process (for
college) is acceptable (didn’t overturn affirmative action)
KEY CIVIL RIGHTS LEADERS LOST
 John F. Kennedy-November 1963; assassinated by
Lee Harvey Oswald in Dallas, Texas
 Martin Luther King-April 4, 1968; James Earl Ray
in Memphis, TN.-great civil rights leader lost
 Robert Kennedy-June 5, 1968; Sirhan Sirhan
(Jordanian immigrant) at a rally in the California
primary (after announcing candidacy for
presidency) (possible revenge for America’s
support for Israel in a war vs. Egypt the year
before)-great civil rights leader lost
NIXON-WATERGATE
 Nixon-narrowly wins the presidency in 1968; in 1972, entering with
high approval ratings, he runs another master ful campaign
 As Nixon stood before cameras on election night, 1972, he had no
idea his downfall was beginning
 A botched burglar y of Democratic Par ty headquar ters at the
Watergate Complex in June 1972 received little attention at first,
but as investigators began to unravel the connections between the
burglars and the White House, Watergate, came to dominate the
news; the 5 men were linked to Nixon’s reelection campaign and
were arrested as they tried to bug the of fices of the Democratic
National Committee in D.C.
 Burglars were tried; witnesses noted that the President and his top
aides were involved in the coverup; Nixon denied any wrongdoing;
two repor ters played a role in unveilng the secrecy as they followed
tips provided by a secret govt. informant known as “Deep Throat”
(later revealed to be a top of ficial of the FBI)
 White House tapes (taping Oval Of fice conver sations for years)
would show he played a leading role in tr ying to coverup the break in; He initially claimed executive privilege, but the Cour t ordered
Nixon to turn them over
 Nixon resigned before impeachment; pardoned by G. Ford
REAGAN-REAGANOMICS
 Reagan and his advisors based their economic policies on the
theory of “supply -side” economics
 Rests on the assumption that if taxes are reduced, govt.
spending will be reduced, leading to increased investment by
the private sector leading to increased prosperity (jobs,
production, etc.); govt. will then collect more taxes
 Supply side theory reminded critics of the “trickle -down
economics” of the 20s: as wealthy prospered it would trickle
down and benefit the middle class and poor
 To cut taxes while still balancing the budget would require
Reagan reduce federal spending, such as on programs
supported by both parties: cut income tax by 25% over 3
years, cut corporate taxes, etc.; cut over $40 billion from
domestic programs
 The economy would experience a severe recession from 1980 1982; the economy rebounded in 1983
REAGAN-COLLAPSE OF THE SOVIET
UNION
-“Tear down this wall”-he challenged the Soviet leader,
Gorbachev, to tear down the Berlin Wall in 1987; it was torn
down by rebellious East Germans in 1989 (symbol of the
Cold War)
(1989-also the year of pro-democ. Riots at Tiananmen
Square)
-August 1991-hard-liners in the Soviet Union attempted to
maintain communist rule, but millions of Russians, led by
Boris Yeltsin, rallied to support Gorbachev, the coup fell
apart
-not long after, the Communist party lost power and the
Soviet Union separated into 15 separate republics; Yeltsin
became the new leader after Gorbachev resigned
CLINTON-IMPEACHMENT
 Monica Lewinsky scandal
 Perjury and obstruction of justice
 House of Reps. Impeached Clinton; President was acquitted in
the Senate trial-1999
2000 PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION
 Election: Al Gore vs. George W. Bush vs. Ralph Nader
 Gore wound up winning the popular vote
 Vote margin in the electoral college was thin; although Gore
received a half million more votes than Bush, victory hinged on
Florida
 Vote in FL. Was so close that a state law mandated an automatic
statewide recount (hand recount) of votes; Dem. Argued for an
additional recount because many punch -card ballots were
undercounted, Rep. appealed that decision to the federal courts,
Bush v. Gore, court essentially made Bush president (didn’t have
time to conduct a lawful recount and violated 14 th amendment
equal-protection clause); result gave Bush 271 electoral votes,
one more needed to win the election