Behavioral Assessment and
Intervention: A Continuum
of Effective Strategies in
Schools
Nicholas A. Gage, PhD
IES Postdoctoral Fellow
Center for Behavioral Education and Research
UCONN
Using Evidence-based
Classroom Management
Strategies within a PBIS
Framework
Goals
 I will define continuum of assessment
practices in schools- Macro to Micro
Framework
 I will define evidence-based behavioral
interventions that map to assessment
procedures
 You will ask at least three questions
 I will not talk too fast or “hop” too much
Continuum
 A continuous sequence in which adjacent
elements are not perceptibly different from
each other, although the extremes are quite
distinct (dictionary.com)
 Although features of behavior assessments
and interventions are different, the
underlying theory is consistent (not
perceptibly different)
 Theory in use is behaviorism
Intensive Few
Targeted
Universal
Some
All
Continuum of
Behavioral
Support for
ALL
Continuum of
Assessment
Data
Key Starting Point
Behavior is functionally related to
the teaching environment.
Functional approach
logic



Behaviors are maintained by consequence
events (function)
Behaviors are occasioned by antecedent events
Changing behaviors requires consideration of
maintaining consequences
The 3 Term Contingency with Bonus
Setting Event!
Setting --> Predictor --> Problem --> Maintaining
Event
(Antecedent) Behavior Consequence
Beauty of function-based
Thinking: Closely examine what
may be obvious
How do we enact
function-based
thinking?
Data-Based Decision
Making
What is DBDM?
 Data-based decision refers to the use of data to make
decisions in schools
 Data
 Student



Academic (e.g. DRA, DIBELS, high-stakes tests)
Behavior (e.g. ODRs, rate of aggression, time on-task)
Social (e.g. # of positive interactions, social reciprocity)
 Teacher
 Personal assessment (e.g. # of OTRs)
 Outside assessment (e.g. CLASS, value-added)
 Schools
 Academic progress (e.g. annual high-stakes tests)
 Financial stability (e.g. monthly resource costs)
DBDM is…
 A process
 Not static
 Involves actionable steps that…
 Define the problem
 Collect the data
 Interpret the data
 Make a decision
 Is iterative
Logic of DBDM
 The elegance of DBDM is that it allows us to partition
our bias
 Suspend opinion
 Objective, not subjective (e.g. anecdotes)
 Quantification of experience
Kauffman’s thoughts
 “The teacher who cannot or will not pinpoint
and measure the relevant behaviors of the
student he or she is teaching is probably not
going to be very effective” (Kauffman, 2005, p.
439)
DATA: 4 Simple Data-Based Decision
Making Steps to Success
Define the problem and establish judgment criteria
Who, what, where, when, why?
What are the socially acceptable criteria? What is success (e.g.
80%)?
Acquire a plan
Use operational definitions
How will you collect and analyze data?
Track data
Consistently and objectively collect and track data
Actively inspect data and modify instruction
Organize, describe, and analyze data
Relate results back to problem
Evaluate student progress and intervention effectiveness
Behavioral Objectives
 Specific and measurable statements about
expected or desired behaviors and levels of
performance at the end of an instructional time
period
During a 20 minute recess period, plato will verbally
respond to peers in a positive or neutral manner in
80% of opportunities for three consecutive days by
the end of the first term.
Four essential components of all
objectives
 learner .... who
 behavior ... what
 condition .... when, where
 criterion... how much and by when
Operational Definitions
Key: You can see it and you can measure it!
 Engagement: Target student’s body/eyes are
oriented to a task or activity that is either asked
of her/him or appropriate to setting, such as
reading or playing with peers during free
opportunities.
 Instructional talk: The teacher is engaged in
direct instructional talk with the classroom or
small group of students.
Data Collection Methods
 Paper Pencil
 Simple- post-it notes
 Complex- partial interval sheet
 Golf counter
 Cell phones and apps
 Rubber band or penny in the pocket “trick”
Organize and Analyze the
Data
 Excel or other software (e.g. OpenOffice,
Numbers, etc.)
 Graph paper
 Inter-ocular test of significance
 Mean
 Trend
 Variability
Continuum of Assessment
and Behavior: Part 1
Macro-Level:
School-wide Positive
Behavioral Interventions
and Supports (SWPBIS)
Intensive Few
Targeted
Universal
Some
All
Continuum of
Behavioral
Support for
ALL
Supporting Social Competence &
Academic Achievement
4 PBS
Elements
OUTCOMES
Supporting
Decision
Making
Supporting
Staff Behavior
PRACTICES
Supporting
Student Behavior
Doesn’t Work
Works
 Label student
 Teach targeted social skills
 Exclude student
 Reward social skills
 Blame family
 Teach all
 Punish student
 Individualize for non-
 Assign restitution
 Ask for apology
responsive behavior
 Invest in positive school-wide
culture
Experimental Research on SWPBIS
Bradshaw, C.P., Koth, C.W., Thornton, L.A., & Leaf, P.J. (2009). Altering school climate through
school-wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports: Findings from a grouprandomized effectiveness trial. Prevention Science, 10(2), 100-115
Bradshaw, C.P., Koth, C.W., Bevans, K.B., Ialongo, N., & Leaf, P.J. (2008). The impact of schoolwide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) on the organizational health of
elementary schools. School Psychology Quarterly, 23(4), 462-473.
Bradshaw, C. P., Mitchell, M. M., & Leaf, P. J. (2010). Examining the effects of School-Wide Positive
Behavioral Interventions and Supports on student outcomes: Results from a randomized
controlled effectiveness trial in elementary schools. Journal of Positive Behavior
Interventions, 12, 133-148.
Bradshaw, C.P., Reinke, W. M., Brown, L. D., Bevans, K.B., & Leaf, P.J. (2008). Implementation of
school-wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) in elementary schools:
Observations from a randomized trial. Education & Treatment of Children, 31, 1-26.
Horner, R., Sugai, G., Smolkowski, K., Eber, L., Nakasato, J., Todd, A., & Esperanza, J., (2009). A
randomized, wait-list controlled effectiveness trial assessing school-wide positive behavior
support in elementary schools. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 11, 133-145.
Horner, R. H., Sugai, G., & Anderson, C. M. (2010). Examining the evidence base for school-wide
positive behavior support. Focus on Exceptionality, 42(8), 1-14.
Bradshaw, C., Waasdorp, T., Leaf. P., (in press). Effects of School-wide positive behavioral
Experimental Research on SWPBIS
Bradshaw, C.P., Koth, C.W., Thornton, L.A., & Leaf, P.J. (2009). Altering school climate through
school-wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports: Findings from a grouprandomized effectiveness trial. Prevention Science, 10(2), 100-115
Bradshaw, C.P., Koth, C.W., Bevans, K.B., Ialongo, N., & Leaf, P.J. (2008). The impact of schoolwide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) on the organizational health of
elementary schools. School Psychology Quarterly, 23(4), 462-473.
Bradshaw, C. P., Mitchell, M. M., & Leaf, P. J. (2010). Examining the effects of School-Wide Positive
Behavioral Interventions and Supports on student outcomes: Results from a randomized
controlled effectiveness trial in elementary schools. Journal of Positive Behavior
Interventions, 12, 133-148.
Bradshaw, C.P., Reinke, W. M., Brown, L. D., Bevans, K.B., & Leaf, P.J. (2008). Implementation of
school-wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) in elementary schools:
Observations from a randomized trial. Education & Treatment of Children, 31, 1-26.
Horner, R., Sugai, G., Smolkowski, K., Eber, L., Nakasato, J., Todd, A., & Esperanza, J., (2009). A
randomized, wait-list controlled effectiveness trial assessing school-wide positive behavior
support in elementary schools. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 11, 133-145.
Horner, R. H., Sugai, G., & Anderson, C. M. (2010). Examining the evidence base for school-wide
positive behavior support. Focus on Exceptionality, 42(8), 1-14.
Bradshaw, C., Waasdorp, T., Leaf. P., (in press). Effects of School-wide positive behavioral
Continuum of
Assessment and
Behavior Support: Part 2
Classrooms
Ok, but what about
classrooms?
 Are school systems and classrooms
symbiotic?
 Can we utilize the same prevention logic in
classrooms (tiered models of support)?
 Are there evidence-based practices for
addressing classroom-based behaviors?
Evidence Based Practices in
Classroom Management
1.
Maximize structure in your classroom.
2.
Post, teach, review, monitor, and reinforce a
small number of positively stated
expectations.
3.
Actively engage students in observable
ways.
4.
Establish a continuum of strategies to
acknowledge appropriate behavior.
5.
Establish a continuum of strategies to respond
to inappropriate behavior.
(Simonsen, Fairbanks, Briesch, Myers, & Sugai, 2008)
1. Maximize structure in your classroom.
 Develop Predictable Routines
 Teacher routines
 Student routines
 Design environment to (a) elicit appropriate
behavior and (b) minimize crowding and
distraction:




Arrange furniture to allow easy traffic flow.
Ensure adequate supervision of all areas.
Designate staff & student areas.
Seating arrangements (groups, carpet, etc.)
2. Behavioral expectations/Rules
 A small number (i.e., 3-5) of positively stated
rules. Tell students what we want them to do,
rather than telling them what we do not want
them to do.
3. Actively engage students in observable ways.

Provide high rates of opportunities to respond

Consider various observable ways to engage
students

Link engagement with outcome objectives
4.
Establish a continuum of strategies to
acknowledge appropriate behavior.
 Specific and Contingent Praise
 Group Contingencies
 Behavior Contracts
 Token Economies
5.
Establish a continuum of strategies to
respond to inappropriate behavior.
• Error Corrections
• Differential
Reinforcement
• Planned ignoring
• Response Cost
• Time out from
reinforcement
Continuum of
Assessment and
Intervention: Part 3
Micro-Level Supports:
Structural Analysis and
Functional Analysis
Structural Analysis in
the Classroom
Structural Analysis
Structural Analysis is an assessment procedure
that manipulates antecedents and/or
setting events to increase the occurrence
of pro-social behaviors and reduce the
occurrence of problem behaviors.
How do you do it?
Stichter and Conroy (2005) outlined a 5step approach
1. Collect preliminary data- interviews and
observations
2. Develop hypotheses and conduct
manipulations
3. Analyze the Data
4. Develop intervention plan
5. Implement and continue to monitor data
Step 1: Data Collection
 Interview teachers, staff, paraprofessionals, etc.
 Ask open ended question “What happens right before the
behavior?”
 Key things: Identify behavior and operationally define,
develop summary statements (A-B-C)
 Collect baseline data
 Start with “big picture” and move to specific situations.
 Develop data collection methods if appropriate
Operational Definition
Key: You can see it and you can measure it!
 Engagement: Target student’s body/eyes are oriented
to a task or activity that is either asked of her/him or
appropriate to setting, such as reading or playing with
peers during free opportunities.
 Instructional talk: The teacher is engaged in direct
instructional talk with the classroom or small group of
students.
Big Picture Example
Situational Example
Step 2: Develop and
Conduct Manipulations
 Review all data sources
 including interviews, summary statements,
baseline data, and other relevant materials
 Develop hypotheses
 What antecedents seem to be triggering the
behavior?
 Example: Nick’s frequency of swearing seems to
increase during independent seat work and when
the teacher is working with another student
Step 2: Develop and
Conduct Manipulations
(cont.)
 Develop manipulations and define how you will
do them
 Conduct manipulations and Collect Data
STEP 3: Analyze the Data
• Graph the data
• Use Excel or graph paper
• Review Graph for patterns
• Is there a functional relationship present?
• Identify the most effective environmental
variables
Step 4: Develop Intervention Plan
 Based on the results, develop an intervention
plan
 If high attention reduces the occurrence, develop an
attention intervention that is not strictly contingent,
but can be, such as check in every 30 seconds, fading
to 1 minute, then to 2 minutes , etc.
Step 5: Implement Intervention and
Assess
Continue to monitor the student’s behavior. If the intervention is not effective, reassess
Recap
 Structural Analysis can be used as part of an FBA or as
a stand alone procedure
 5-step procedure can be used to guide process
 Procedures outlined can be simplified and tailored to
meet the needs of the teacher.
Don’t think
that we all get
it right away
and remember
the best laid
plans do not
ensure
success,
persistence
does.
Functional Analysis and
Functional Behavior
Assessment
School-Wide
Positive Behavior
Support
Primary Prevention:
School-/ClassroomWide Systems for
All Students,
Staff, & Settings
~5%
~15%
~80% of Students
Tertiary Prevention:
Specialized
Individualized
Systems for Students
with High-Risk Behavior
Secondary Prevention:
Specialized Group
Systems for Students
with At-Risk Behavior
What is FBA?





Functional behavioral assessment is a process for
identifying the events that reliably predict and
maintain problem behavior.
Functional behavioral assessment improves the
effectiveness and efficiency of a behavior
intervention plan.
An FBA that does not affect the content of a BIP
is not useful.
Create order out of chaos (define contextual
information, where, when, with whom, etc)
Professional accountability (IDEA, 1997)
What is FBA?
A systematic process for
developing statements about
factors that


contribute to occurrence & maintenance
of problem behavior, &
more importantly, serve as basis for
developing proactive & comprehensive
behavior support plans.
Fundamental Rule!
“You should not propose to
reduce a problem behavior without
also identifying alternative, desired
behaviors person should perform
instead of problem behavior” (O’Neill
et al., 1997, p. 71).
Functional approach
logic

Behaviors are maintained by consequence
events (function)


Behaviors are occasioned by antecedent events


Positive or negative reinforcement
Relate antecedent to emission of behavior &
likelihood of consequence event
Changing behaviors requires consideration of
maintaining consequences
The 3 Term Contingency with Bonus
Setting Event!
Setting --> Predictor --> Problem --> Maintaining
Event
(Antecedent) Behavior Consequence
Definition of
Problem Behavior
or Class
Contextually
Appropriate
Support
Behavior
Intervention
Plan
Testable
Hypothesis
FBA
Elements
Competing
Path
Analysis
Function
Statement
Supporting
Data
FUNCTIONAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT:
OUTCOMES

A functional behavioral assessment should result
in the following:




Operational definition(s) of problem behavior(s)
Identification of the contexts (locations, activities,
routines, times of day, people) where the problem
behavior(s) is most likely, and least likely.
Identification of the specific antecedent events
(setting events and discriminative stimuli) most likely
to predict (occasion) the identified problem
behavior(s).
Identification of the consequence(s) that maintain
(reinforce) the problem behavior.
FUNCTIONAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT:
THE PROCESS




Gather general information about student
Gather specific information to build a summary
statement
Validate the summary statement through direct
observation of student
Use FBA information to build behavior intervention
plan.
FUNCTIONAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT:
THE PROCESS

Review medical, academic, social history.

Three primary sources of FBA information



Indirect Assessment: Rating Scales or Interviews
Direct Observation: Observe student
Functional Analysis: Formal manipulation of context
with measurement of student behavior.
FUNCTIONAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT:
INDIRECT ASSESSMENT

Indirect assessments rely on reports about a
student’s behavior rather than direct observation of
the behavior.


Many interviews and rating scales exist
Any interview or rating scale you use should result in
identifying:




The problem behavior(s)
Context/routines where problem behavior is most and
least likely
Specific events (discriminative stimuli) that occasion the
problem behavior(s)
Specific consequences that appear reinforcing.
FUNCTIONAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT:
DIRECT OBSERVATION



Direct observation is often done to validate
information obtained through interviews.
The student is observed in the context/routine
where the problem behavior is most likely to occur.
Direct observation focuses on identifying the
specific antecedents and consequences that
appear to control the problem behavior.
FUNCTIONAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT:
FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS


Functional analysis involves direct observation of
problem behavior during experimental
manipulations of environmental events to
systematically identify the antecedent events
that occasion problem behaviors, and the
consequences that reinforce problem behaviors.
Functional analysis typically is conducted only by
trained behavior analysts.
Consider response class
Set of topographically different behaviors
with similar or related purpose or function
– Hit, spit, runaway, yell…
• Escape difficult task request
– Cry, hit, whine, raise hand, spit…..
• Obtain adult attention
Only 2 Basic Functions
Problem
Behavior
Pos Reinf
Escape/
Avoid
Something
Obtain/Get
Something
Stimulation/
Sensory
Tangible/
Activity
Social
Adult
Neg Reinf
Peer
COMPETING PATHWAYS
BEHAVIOR SUPPORT
PLANNING
Neutralize/
eliminate
setting
events
Add relevant
& remove
irrelevant
triggers
Teach
alternative
that is more
efficient
Add effective &
& remove
ineffective
reinforcers
Competing Behavior
Pathway
Setting Events
Peer
conflict
Desired Alternative
Comply
with
request
Triggering Antecedents
Problem Behavior
Teacher/
peer
request
Escalated
profanity
physical
aggression
Acceptable Alternative
Caesar
Walk
away
Desired
Maintaining
Consequence
Request
completed
Maintaining
Consequence
Avoid
request
Competing Behavior
Pathway
Setting Events
None
Desired Alternative
Normal
volume
response
Triggering Antecedents
Problem Behavior
Teacher
Request
Eyes/head
down on
arms
Acceptable Alternative
Lisa
Whisper
response
Desired
Maintaining
Consequence
Praise
for task
completion
Maintaining
Consequence
Teacher
directs
request to
another
SUMMARY


Functional behavioral assessment is a process for
identifying problem behaviors and the events that
prompt and maintain problem behaviors.
The reason for conducting an FBA is to gather
information that will help make behavior
intervention plans more effective and efficient.
Five Steps in Leading a Team
from FBA to a Behavior Support Plan

1. Summarize FBA


2. Define goals of BSP process:





Setting Events-> Antecedents -> Behavior ->
Consequence
Make problem behavior irrelevant
Make problem behavior inefficient
Make problem behavior ineffective
Do all this in a contextually appropriate manner
3. Lead discussion to identify options




Ask questions, don’t give solutions
Paraphrase, elaborate, integrate
Always bring group back to FBA logic
Produce multiple ideas (elements)
Sum-up
 Behavior assessment and intervention is a
collaborative process
 Data must inform all interventions
 Basic theory is the same across the
continuum
Intensive Few
Targeted
Universal
Some
All
Continuum of
Behavioral
Support for
ALL
Questions