UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA
SCHOOL OF RESEARCH AND GRADUATE STUDIES
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, PHYSICAL EDUCATION,
RECREATION AND SPORTS
SUPERVISION OF TEACHING PRACTICE AS PERCEIVED BY
STUDENT-TEACHERS: A CASE STUDY AT ATEBUBU
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION OF BRONG AHAFO REGION OF
GHANA
AYAMBA FRANCIS
2010
UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA
SCHOOL OF RESEARCH AND GRADUATE STUDIES
SUPERVISION OF TEACHING PRACTICE AS PERCEIVED BY STUDENTTEACHERS, A CASE STUDY AT ATEBUBU COLLEGE OF EDUCATION.
AYAMBA FRANCIS
(608009105)
MASTERS OF EDUCATION IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION
A project report in the DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, PHYSICAL EDUCATION, RECREATION AND
SPORTS, faculty of SCIENCE EDUCATION
“Submitted to the School of Research and Graduate Studies, University of Education,
Winneba in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of the Degree of
MASTER OF EDUCATION IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION of the UNIVERSITY OF
EDUCATION, WINNEBA”
OCTOBER, 2010
DECLARATION
CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION
I, Maxwell Francis Ayamba, declare that this project report, with the exception of quotations
and references contained in published works which have all been identified and acknowledge,
is entirely my own original work, and it has submitted either in part or whole for another
degree elsewhere.
Candidate’s signature...............................
Date..........................................
DECLARATION BY SUPERVISOR
I, Professor, Jonathan Ammah, certify that the preparation and presentation of this project
report was supervised in accordance with the guidelines and supervision of the project report
laid down rules and regulation by the school of research and graduate studies if the
University of Education, Winneba.
Supervisor’s Signature............................
Date.......................................
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The completion of this thesis brings another chapter of my life to a close and assists me with
beginning to formulate what I hope will be many future chapters.
The researcher deem it imperative to show his love to all personalities who contributed in
various ways to make this thesis a success.
First and foremost, my profound gratitude goes to the Almighty God for spiritually guiding
me through the writing of this thesis.
Next, I thank Professor Jonathan Ammah, Director of International Relation, University of
Education, Winneba who supervised this work.
My supervisor’s comments, guidelines, support and the time he spent with me made it
possible for me to complete this work at the appropriate time and may the Almighty God
bless him and his entire family.
I wish to register my indebtedness to the authors of books and articles I consulted during the
write-up.
I wish to express my invaluable gratitude to Mr. Seibu Munkaila, Master of Philosophy
student in Physical Education and currently, Physical Education tutor, Komenda College of
Education, for the support he gave to me which urged me to use the least time at my disposal
to complete this study.
To the rest of you whose names could not be written here, I thank you all.
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DEDICATION
Dedicated to my children Kelvin Ayamba, Calisther Ayamba, and Benedict Ayamba.
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TABLES OF CONTENTS
CONTENTS
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Declaration
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Acknowledgement
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Dedication
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Tables of contents
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List of tables
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Abstract
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CHAPTER ONE
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1.0. Introduction
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1.1. Background of the study-
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1.2. Statement of the problem-
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1.3. Purpose of the study
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1.4. Research questions
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1.5. Delimitation
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1.6. Limitation
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1.7. Significance of the study-
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1.8. Definition of terms
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2.1. The concept of supervision-
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2.2. Mode of supervision
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2.3. Impact of supervision -
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Summary
CHAPTER TWO
2.0. Review of literature
CHAPTER THREE
Methodology
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3.1. Introduction
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3.2 Research Design -
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3.3. Respondents
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3.4. Sampling
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3.5. Instrumentation -
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3.6. Data collecting procedures-
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3.7. Data analysis
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4.0. Result data analysis and discussions -
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4.1. Introduction
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CHAPTER FOUR
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4.2. Result, finding and discussion -
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CHAPTER FIVE
Summary, conclusion, and recommendations
5.0. Summary
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5.1. Conclusion
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5.2. Recommendation-
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REFERENCE
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Appendix A
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Appendix B
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Appendix C
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APPENDICES
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LIST OF TABLES
1. Student- teacher’s responses on how student-teachers view supervisory practice
during supervision.
2. Student-teachers responses on the mode of supervision.
3. Student-teachers responses on the impact of supervision of school of practice.
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ABSTRACT
The popular impression of the fallen standard of education in Ghana today is due to lack of
effective supervision. The study was to find out the concerns of third- year diploma basic
education student-teachers’ perception about teaching practice during their one year
internship. The responders for this research survey were of 50 diploma basic education
students-teachers (35 males and 15 females) from Atebubu College of Education, Atebubu,
who were on one-year internship, in the Atebubu, Sene, and Pru District, all in the Brong
Ahafo Region. The researcher used convenient sampling method to select 50 studentsteachers who were to respond to levels concerning the Likert format rating Strong Agree,
Agree, Disagree, and Strongly Disagree. Questionnaires were used to elicit the perception of
Diploma Basic Education students-teachers during internship at Atebubu Collage of
Education. The respondents were 2009 year student-teachers who were out for the internship.
Questionnaires were used in data collection in the three Districts of Brong Ahafo namely
Atebubu, Sene, and Pru. Percentages values and inferential statistic of Chi-square (x2) were
also used to analyze the data for accuracy and relevant results for generalization. The results
were that there was no significant difference about students-teachers’ perception of
supervisory practice and mode of supervision during teaching practice. Based on the findings,
some suggestions were made on how to improve supervision in Colleges of Education to
reflect modern supervision.
viii
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study.
The implementation of the 1957 accelerated development plan of education in the Gold coast
(Now Ghana) led to the establishment of many primary schools and basic schools. This
necessitated the setting up of additional teacher training colleges (now Colleges of Education) to
train more teachers to handle these schools. There has been public outcry about the falling
standards of education in the country especially at the basic schools. People have divergent
views about the falling standard of education .Some attribute it to poor teaching, lack of adequate
teaching and learning materials, whiles some say that teachers lack the skill of teaching during
teaching practice before graduation and others also say that trainees are given not enough
supervision during teaching practice.
Inspite of all this in teacher preparation programme, little attention is given to supervision even
though it is considered to be the most significant aspect of teacher preparation. Some studentteachers in Colleges of Education see supervision as a bother or worry because of its present
form. In view of these, teachers do not take teaching practice seriously, and they graduate from
school without the requisite skills for teaching. Their concern for good grades make them put up
some kind of artificial teaching to impress college supervisors but quickly disregard such
practices once the supervisors are gone. Some student- teachers view supervision as a guide or
driving tool for preparing them to become effective teachers in future .Such student- teachers
take teaching practice seriously to the extent that they prepare their lesson notes in advance, get
their teaching and learning materials ready for the next day’s lesson .They accept comments
1
made by college supervisors and criticisms which they feel are ways of helping them to improve
their skills in subsequent lessons.
Some student -teachers also view the teaching practice as a mere requirement for certification
and therefore not beneficial to them. It is very important that all Colleges of Education ensure
that their practising teachers undergo a training programme that will equip them with the
necessary skills of teaching, and also remove the misconception they have about supervision
during teaching practice before going out for their teaching practice.
Most often college supervisors do not help student -teachers to act independently during their
teaching practice. Newly trained teachers therefore get shocked when they are left on their own
for the first time without a mentor guiding them. Some student - teachers also see supervision of
teaching practice, as college tutors helping them improve their teaching and correcting their
mistakes. They also view it as a place to grade student- teachers.
Henry and Beasley, (1976) have identified the central function of supervision to be assisting a
learner in the acquisition of new content. Metzler,(1990) maintained that supervision is not to
correct students mistakes but also to point out their strengths .It is not surprising that studentteachers viewed supervision during teaching practice as a form of evaluation, since they would
be certified as having passed or failed at the end of their training.
Perception can be defined as the process by which organisms interpret organized sensation to
produce a meaningful experience of the world. Perception therefore is the basis for the
development and changes in attitudes, values, and skills in human labour life.
Some student- teachers therefore conclude that they see teaching practice as experimenting with
new teaching methods, practical aspect of the teacher method of training, they also see it as an
opportunity for them to interact with pupils in real classrooms. This idea is supported by Henry
2
and Beasley, (1976) who noted that student teaching provide the major opportunity for future
teachers to showcase the skills they have acquired in their education courses. This is further
confirmed by the out gone president of PRINCORF Mrs Korenteng Addo of Saint Monica’s
College of Education who indicated that teaching practice is meant to expose student -teachers to
real life in the classroom, so if they see supervisors before them, their presence is to correct them
and not fight them or see them as enemies. She said this during the school’s first matriculation.
Some student- teachers see supervision to be important to them in the sense that teaching
practice helps them to put theory learnt in the classroom into practice.
Teaching practice started at Presbyterian Training College now called Presbyterian College of
Education in the year1848. It is the first training college to be established in the country, Gold
coast, now Ghana. There, student- teachers practice teaching along side learning the catechism.
The mode of practice was in two segments, with the first segment, third year trainees stay on
campus and practice out side the nearby primary, middle schools and the college demonstration
school for one month and another one month of practice when they are in the final and fourth
year of their programme.
Some where along the line, with the on going educational reforms, more schools were built and
this led to the establishment of more teacher training colleges in the country namely: Saint John
Bosco Training College, Tumu Training College, and few others in the 1960s to train teachers to
come out and teach. These colleges started with a two year course called certificate” B” where
trainees have their first teaching practice in the first year for one month and the second and final
one in their final year, this is for two months of field experience. The course was upgraded to
Certificate “A” and the same system of practice was carried out. In the 1970s more training
colleges were built to support the increasing numbers of schools in the country as result of the
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acceleration development plan. At this time, the course took a different dimension where trainees
spend four years in school, with the first teaching practice starting in the third year for one month
and the second in the final year of the four years duration for those who completed middle
schools in those days. Students stay on campus and have field experience at near by schools and
finally awarded a post middle Certificate” A”.
As time went on, teacher education division of Ministry of Education started upgrading the
colleges by admitting students who completed secondary schools into the colleges to offer a
three year Post-Secondary Certificate “A” along side with the four year course. With the three
year trainees, they had two sessions of practice teaching .The first teaching practice begins when
trainees are in their second year and the second and final one starts when trainees are in the third
and final year of their programme.
In the early 1990s there was a shift from internal to external practice teaching where studentteachers travel outside the school environment to spend one month for practice teaching and
were supervised by the college tutors. But if a student is to face a panel for distinction or failure
then the supervisors will comprise tutors from other sister colleges and the teaching practice
coordinator of that College.
In September, 2002, a new teacher education policy dubbed IN- IN-OUT was born; this followed
a reform of upgrading teacher training colleges into a Diploma awarding institutions. In October,
2004, central to this restructuring was to produce effective teachers for “quality delivery” in
schools. That is raising the standard of basic school education and teachers quality for that
matter, the beginning of teaching practice in Colleges of Education.
The diploma in Basic Education programme put more emphasis on training teachers who will be
able to teach at both primary and junior high schools. The teaching practice is based on student4
teachers spending the first two years on college –based activities and courses .The third and final
year is spent outside the college and devoted to school attachment in partnership schools under
the supervision of mentors and college tutors.
Atebubu College of Education is situated in the western part of the district. The Training
College, was initially offering the four year teacher certificate “A” alongside the three year post
secondary course, but now because of the educational reforms, it is now offering the three-year
certificate course in Diploma in Basic Education. Student- teachers are required to do teaching
practice for one year period of their training .This is a shift from the method where studentteachers spend one month of teaching practice.
The Colleges of Education are being criticized for the quality of teachers being produced
nowadays. The question is, do Colleges of Education give student- teachers orientation on
teaching practice? If they do, what is the nature and quality of practice? Do they feel that they
are benefiting from the training programme? It is against this background that, the researcher
tries to find out how student- teachers perceive supervision in College of Education during their
internship programme.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
The current initial teacher preparation in Ghana leaves much to be desired in that it has failed to
arrest the fallen standards of education in the country due to its components and structures. This
IN-IN-OUT system, where student- teachers spend two years in the classroom and one year field
experience have the view that the course should give prominence to extensive academic session
to upgrade them academically to acquire the mastery of the subject matter and pedagogical
knowledge. However, experience will automatically come on its own during the course of their
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teaching when they are finally on the field and to them they view supervision of teaching
practice as a bother, a waste of their precious time because of its current form. They also
consider supervision as a means of requirement for certification, and therefore not important to
them, in view of this they do not take teaching practice seriously. Their concern for good grades
made them to act artificially in the presence of the college supervisor but immediately the
supervisor leaves they tend to disregard the principle of teaching.
Physical education is one of the subjects’ that is neglected in our schools these days especially
in the Primary, Junior High, and Senior High Schools. One view given by most student- teachers
is that the subject is technical, and for that matter only technical personnel should teach it and
observe student- teachers who wish to teach the subject during teaching practice.
Some student- teachers are of the view that in the junior and senior high schools, sports is taught
and not physical education. Besides that the subject physical education is not examinable and for
that matter they see no reason why they should be supervised in the subject called physical
education. They also claim that they find it very difficult to prepare lesson notes on the subject
because the content is taught as core in the first year and in the second year it is selected as
elective course where most of the trainees do not offer. However, it is in the second year that the
methodology aspect is taught, so when student teachers go out for teaching practice the subject is
neglected or not taught.
1.3 Purpose of the Study
The primary purpose of this study was to examine how student- teachers perceive supervision
during teaching practice in their various schools of practice.
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1.4. Research Questions
The study sought to find answers to the following questions:
1. How do student teachers view supervisory practice during teaching practice?
2. How do student teachers perceive the mode of supervision during teaching practice?
3. What is the impact of supervision on student-teachers during teaching practice?
1.5. Delimitation
The study was delimited to 50 Diploma Basic Education student -teachers (35 males and 15
females) from Atebubu College of Education, Atebubu, who were on one year internship, in the
Atebubu, Sene, and Pru Districts all in the Brong Ahafo Region. They were the 2009/2010 one
year teaching practice group.
1.6. Limitations
The following are limitations of the study.
1. The convenient sampling technique the researcher employed might not be able to control
most of the extraneous variables that would have influenced on the study.
2. The time of administering the questionnaire (from first term of the teaching practice,
5th October, to 15th December, 2009.), might have also influence the accuracy and relevance
of the data. This is because at that time, the student-teachers might not have gained enough
experience about teaching as well as the mode and impact of supervisory practice in order to
give objective responses to the items on the questionnaire.
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1.7. Significance of the Study
A successful completion of a study of this is very vital in the sense that it will reveal to the
organizers of teaching practice, the strengths and weaknesses of the supervision process in
Colleges of Education. This would enable the teaching practice committee identify possible
measures to maintain the good aspects and to correct the weaknesses.
This study is intended to find out the perception of student -teachers on teaching practice
supervision at Atebubu College of education. This is important because the student- teachers are
the major participants or players of the teaching practice experience, and their beliefs will greatly
affect its quality.
1.8. Definition of Terms.
Internship: one year teaching practice in partnership schools under the guidance of mentors
Mentors: They are the trained teachers to internally supervise the student teachers’ work.
Interns: They are the student- teachers
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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter deals with the review of related literature as documented by some authorities and
scholars. This relates to topics such as the concept of supervision, functions of supervision, the
supervisor, supervisory practices, supervision of instruction and types of supervision.
2.1. CONCEPT OF SUPERVISION.
Gray (1984) defines supervision as getting things done through people. Again Gray (1984) sees
supervision as a very important instrument which helps to ensure that facilities are effectively
used to enhance teaching and learning He observed that supervision in schools, as existed in the
1990s was not operating as effective as it should be .The reasons he gave were lack of adequate
training, lack of dedication, job satisfaction for teachers, poor standard of education, and
commitment to duty on the part of teachers and administrators.
Drake and Roe (1986) on their part argue that supervision is general overseeing and control,
management, administration, evaluation, accountability, and so no. They maintain that authors of
professional literature use supervision interchangeably with administration, management and
evaluation. Betts (1964) shares similar view that supervision and management are the same.
Lucio and McNeil (as cited in Campbell, et al 1977) are of the view that supervision is about the
determination of ends to be achieved, the process and the procedures for attaining the goals, and
the evaluation of results.
The commonwealth secretariat (1973, 1974, and 1975) also maintains that the word
“Supervision” cannot precisely be distinguished from the word “administration’’.
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The distinction, it argues, is that whiles supervision is more concerned with the relationship
between two people of which one of whom by status or
acknowledged expertise is superior,
administration is about the management of an organization to achieve its objectives. It further
argues that “supervision’’ and ‘’administration” are involved in the following process; planning,
decision-making, organizing, communicating, influencing and evaluating.
The above view is also shared by Gwynn (1961) who notes that any distinction between
supervision and administration is either unrealistic or for convenience or interpretation. He
concludes that modern supervision is more identified as an administrative /management function.
As observed by Hersey and Blanchard (1988), management is “the process of working with and
through individuals and groups and other resources to accomplish organizational goals’ p 5.
Supervision is the process of helping a student- teacher to move from his or her present level of
skill to another skill level to be capable of carrying out the needed complex decision in teaching.
Battle (1982) defines supervision as ongoing, close, and professional interaction among
administrators and teachers with a focus on instruction.
The terms assistance, monitoring, observing and dialogue are part of the concept of supervision,
which is generally defined as a function or process of working with teachers to improve
instructions.
Russell and Spafford (1986) argue that supervision must be aimed at producing a climate for
teachers to reflect on action about their practice. A further limitation is that supervision needs to
be viewed as a function performed by many persons in various position for example principals,
vice principals, lead mentors, mentors etc because there is no one definite definition of
supervisor.
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Glickman, Gordon and Rose –Gordon (1998), defines supervision as the assistance for the
improvement of instruction. Glickman et al, declare that,” behind every successful school is an
effective supervision program’’ p. 9. They consider supervision as glue that pulls together
organizational goals and the teacher’s needs and provides for improved learning. Ben Harris (as
cited in Glickman 1990), also argues that supervision is instructing pupils through helping
teachers with instruction.
Mackenzie (as cited in Glickman, 1990) observes that supervision is the function in schools that
draws together discrete elements of instructional effectiveness in whole-school action.
Robin and Alvy (1995) also define supervision as the provision of support for teachers so that
they could attain excellence.
In their opinion, supervision involves the refinement of knowledge and skill regarding effective
teaching and learning. They further argue that supervision is a formative process which involves
rehearsals.
From the above study, we gather that supervision has to do with getting things through people by
forecasting/planning, organizing, commanding, communicating, controlling and so on
2.1.1. Functions of Supervision
Supervisory functions are like administrative process as put forward by Fayol (cited in Campbell,
et al.1977). They include Planning, which is, predicting the future and preparing for it,
organizing human, fiscal, Material resources and time, commanding, that is, ensuring that
employees put up their best to achieve the organizational goals. Coordinating, that is the
harmonization of operations of the organization and controlling that is appraisal and examination
of results to find out the weaknesses and errors in the operations and how to address them
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effectively. Glick (as cited in Campbell, et al 1977) established the following function as
expressed in the acronym ‘POSDCoRB’ Which can be explained as Planning, that is outlining
what ought to be done and the procedures in order to achieve the organizational goals;
Organizing, which means the establishment of the formal structure of authority through which
work subdivisions are arranged; Staffing, which has to do with recruitment, training, and salaries
and wages; Directing, which involves decision-making and implementing, instructing, leading
and influencing; Coordinating, which involves the interrelation of the various components of the
organization ;Reporting, which has to do with accountability to stakeholders and the public; and
finally Budgeting, which involves fiscal planning, accounting ,and controlling.
Hersey and Blanchard(1988), identify managerial functions as : Planning, which involves the
setting of goals and objectives for the organization and spelling on how these goals and
objectives could be realized : Organization , which involves bring resources that is, people,
capital and equipment together to achieve the goals and objectives of the
organization:
Motivation , , which involves the provision of an environment which offers appropriate goals or
incentives for needs satisfaction or motives and Controlling: which is the follow-up to compare
outcomes with plans and to make the necessary adjustment where targets have not been met.
They continue to argue that these management functions are interrelated, however, at any one
time, one or more may be of paramount importance.
The functions of management or supervision are interrelated in action and are only distinguished
for the purposes of analysis, but in reality each is depended on the other (Commonwealth
Secretariat 1973, 1974, and 1975). According to the Commonwealth Secretariat, Planning, for
example is not completed before decision-making starts. Communication and Coordination are
involved in planning.
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From the foregoing, we are informed that management, and for that matter, administration or
supervision has to do with setting of goals and objectives; predicting and setting out procedures
to achieve goals and objectives with available resources; decision-making and implementation of
decisions; communicating; harmonization of the various sections of the organization and
resources; financial accounting and control, motivating and appraisal.
2.1.2. The Supervisor
The supervisor is a first level manger who is accountable for the performance of operative
employees, and performs managerial functions of planning, organizing, directing, coordinating,
and controlling (Gray, 1984; Betts, 1994; Bennett, 1998). Cuming (1993), on his part maintains
that the supervisor is mainly responsible for the achievement of production targets and increase
in productivity. To be effective, Gray (1984), contends that a supervisor should be concerned
about the morale of his staff which is considered to be a prerequisite for performance. He
maintains that a well motivated staff could give off their best provided that: (a) the task to be
performed is properly designed, (b) appropriate technology is available, (c) the staff has the
ability to perform, (d) the group norm supports productive behavior, (e) other organizational
units do not hinder task accomplishment.
Skills of a Supervisor
A supervisor should be equipped with the following skills: technical, human and conceptual
skills (Betts, 1994; Hersey & Blanchard 1988).
Technical Skills
Technical skills refer to the ability to apply knowledge, methods, techniques, experience and
equipment to perform specific tasks effectively (Betts, 1994: Hersey & Blanchard, 1988). Betts
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admits that though supervisors need not be the best among employees, they must not be the
worst. Okumbe (1998) asserts that supervisors need to have enough technical knowledge so as to
pass sound judgments, and offer technical assistance to other employees in his department.
Human Skills
Human skills refer to the interpersonal or interactive skills. Supervisors/managers should be
capable of working with and through people by applying motivational and behaviorist techniques
to get the best out of them (Betts, 1994; Hersey and Blanchard, 1988). Human relations skills
help supervisors to act both officially and humanely (Okumbe, 1998).
Conceptual Skills
This involves the ability to acquire, analyze and interpret information in a logical manner
(Okumbe, 1998). The supervisor/manager should be capable of understanding the intricacies of
the organization as a whole, and act in accordance with its objectives, rather than pursuing a
parochial or personal interest (Betts, 1994; Hersey & Blanchard, 1988).
Supervisory Practices
The Scientific Management Approach
Scientific management, otherwise called the classical theory of management was developed by
Taylor and Henri Fayol. The salient features of scientific management are the establishment of
formal rules, specialization, and clear division of responsibilities and the achievement of high
efficiency through the analysis of work and caring little about the welfare of the operative and
workers in the organization (Bennett, 1998). This theory according to Bennett also calls for
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planning, standardization, close supervision and the detailed specification of employees work.
He concludes that the scientific management theory assumes that there is only one best way of
managing.
Contrary to the above assertion, Atta, Agyenim-Boateng and Baafi (2000) and Asiedu – Akorfi
(1978) argue that the staffs of the school are professionals who understand their work better and
do not require close supervision.
Atta et al. (2000) maintain that the implications of this theory on instructional supervision are
that:
i.
It is very important to specify instructional aims and objectives since they guide the
teacher to perform effectively, as well as serving as yardstick by which output could
be measured.
ii.
If the teacher’s task is well defined he could perform better, and he would also be
more accountable.
iii.
Frequent in-service training to update the knowledge and skills of teachers should be
organized.
iv.
To enable the teacher to deliver satisfactorily he must be supplied with the necessary
inputs (teaching and learning materials)
2.1.3. The Human Relations Movement.
The human relations movement evolved in reaction to the mechanistic treatment of individuals
by the classical theorists. Its concerns were about the welfare of the employees. Mary Parker
Follett, the pioneer of the human relations movement contended that the success of an
organization depended on the development and maintenance of dynamic and harmonious
15
relationships within the organization (Hersey & Blanchard 1988; Bennett 1998). This pioneering
study was perfected by Elton Mayo’s famous Hawthorne Studies which established the following
fundamental propositions.
The amount of work a person does depends on the social conditions surrounding the work.
Money may not necessarily be a motivating factor for higher productivity.
If workers are given a variety of tasks, some of which may require the exercise of initiative
and discretion, their interest could be stimulated to increase productivity.
Individuals see themselves as belonging to a group. Norms of behavior emanate from standards
set by the group to which workers belong, and not from standards imposed by management.
The human relations theory advises that the supervisor should bear in mind that:
i. Decision-making should be a shared responsibility among the school head and the staff,
and even the students where their interest is concerned.
ii. Staff and students in the school should be recognized as individuals and groups. Informal
grouping based on sex, age, subjects, religions, ethnicity and so on, may exist in the
school and they should be recognized and effectively used to attain the goals of the
school.
iii. Concern should be shown about the working and the learning environment of the workers
and students so as to motivate them to give off their best.
iv.
The psychological, social as well as the economic needs of the staff should be
satisfied.
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2.1.4. Theory X and Theory Y
In discussing supervisory practices, Gray (1984), and Hersey and Blanchard (1988) look at
McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y styles of a leader’s behavior, in which Theory X assumes
that most people:
1. Inherently dislike work.
2. Are lazy, irresponsible, and indolent and prefer to be directed.
3. Lack creativity, ingenuity and imagination.
4. Need to be controlled and coerced to achieve organizational goals.
5. Are motivated only at the physiological and safety levels.
On the other hand Theory Y assumes that;
1. Unfavorable conditions work is as natural as play.
2. Without self-control organizational goals could not be achieved.
3. Imagination, creativity and ingenuity are widely distributed throughout the population.
4. Employees will work towards organizational goals if properly motivated.
5. Motivation occurs at all levels that are physiological, safety, social, esteem and selfactualization.
Theory X assumptions emphasizes on rigid work schedules, control and close supervision, while
Theory Y assumes that if people are properly motivated they will direct their efforts towards the
achievement of organizational goals, as well as their own goals. Managers or supervisors who
are inclined towards Theory Y would delegate authority to subordinates, involve them in
decision-making and trust them to handle responsibility as well as exercise little control over
their behavior (Hersey and Blanchard, 1988). They argue that managers should always assume
that everyone is mature, independent and self-motivated; however, they take notice that there are
individual differences. They acknowledge that Theory Y assumptions are more likely to ensure
17
efficiency in management, but they insist that it would be inappropriate for managers to behave
consistently towards all people with those assumptions all the time. Hersey and Blanchard
observe that the supervisor may find it necessary to behave in a directive and controlling manner
typical of Theory X assumptions with some people in the short run to help them to develop into
maturity and become Theory Y people. They conclude that administrators should not hold the
view that Theory X assumptions are bad and Theory Y assumptions are good; but they should
always know the type of people they are dealing with and apply the appropriate theory since
what one person perceives as freedom is another person’s slavery.
The Contingency
The contingency approach assumes that situations or circumstances are not permanent; they are
subject to changes. A supervisor’s style should therefore be varied according to the needs of a
particular situation. Contrary to the classical theory, the contingency theory holds that there is no
one best approaches of solving management problems (Bennett, 1998).
Nigro (1970); Mattenson and Ivancevich (1989) suggest that the contingency approach should be
applied by the supervisor:
1. Were the organizations is very large and widely distributed geographically, and employee
participation in decision-making is very limited.
2. When the supervisor is satisfied that his subordinates are equal to the task he should
assign responsibility to them.
3. If the subordinates are familiar with the problem or have knowledge to handle the
problem then he should involve them in solving that problem.
18
4. When there is the need to take a quick or immediate decision especially in crises
situation, supervisors or administrators should not delegate authority or involve
subordinates in decision-making.
Supervision of Instruction
Glickman, Gordon and Ross-Gordon (1998), define supervision as the assistance for the
improvement of instruction. Glickman et al. declare that, “behind every successful school is an
effective supervision program” p. 9. They consider supervision as glue or adhesive that pulls
together organizational goals and teacher’s needs and provides for improved learning. Ben Harris
(as cited in Glickman 1990) also argues that supervision is related to instructing pupils through
helping teachers with instruction.
Lewis and Miel (1972) define instruction as, “The actual flow of engagements. By personsbeing-educated, with other persons and things within particular arrangements of time and space”
p. 29
Supervision of instruction is the process through which the principal or supervisor attempts to
work with teachers in a positive way to achieve academic excellence (Drake and Roe, 1986). The
principal or supervisor, according to Drake and Roe is to offer leadership activities to bring
teachers and other staff members together to improve teaching and learning in the school.
The Dictionary of Education (as cited in Chester and Marie, 1960) defines supervision as
leadership provided by designated school officials to teachers and other educational workers for
the improvement of instruction. Mackenzie (as cited in Glickman, 1990) observes that
supervision is the function in schools that draws together the discrete elements of instructional
effectiveness into whole-school action.
19
Robbins and Alvy (1995) also define supervision as the provision of support for teachers so that
they could attain excellence. In their opinion, supervision of instruction involves the refinement
of knowledge and skills regarding effective teaching and learning. They further argue that
supervision is a formative process which involves several dress rehearsals.
Lewis and Miel (1972) outline the following as the functions of instructional supervision: (1)
Overseeing, Planning and Operating, that is, Monitoring and Controlling (2) Auditing (3) Critic
of teaching (4) Critic of instructional environment and (5) Evaluating instructional situations,
deciding what kind of help is needed, and providing such help. They maintain that supervision as
a function of enhancing quality should not be assigned solely to a functionary called a
supervisor. Glickman (1990) shares similar view by arguing that supervision should not be
associated with a person.
Instructional Supervisors
Instructional supervisors are responsible for the improvement of instructional services in schools.
Their task, according to Glickman et al. (1998), involves (a) Ongoing personal contact with
teachers to observe and assist them in instructional issues, (c) Providing learning opportunities
for the professional growth of teachers, (d) Revision and modification of the content, plans and
materials of classroom instruction, and (e) Studying what is happening in the classroom and the
school with the aim of improving learning.
In the Ghana Education Service (G.E.S), supervisors are perceived to be office-based such as
headquarters and regional office inspectors, district directors, assistance directors (supervision),
and circuit supervisors. The above supervisors are called external supervisors (CCEUCC,
Module Four, 2003). However, Glickman et al. (1998) argue that supervision is a function and a
20
process rather than a role or a position. A supervisor is therefore any person who is involved in
supervision such as principals, headmasters/head teachers, subject/department heads, and
class/form masters. These supervisors are called internal supervisors (CCEUCC, Module Four
2003)
Commonwealth Secretariat, (1973, 1974 and 1975), also uses the term “supervisor” for heads of
schools, inspectors, advisers and education officers at the district or local level who are in charge
of teaching staff and educational programmes. It categorizes supervisors into: (a) school-based,
that is, head teacher/headmistress, or principal; and (b) office-based, that is, inspectors/advisors,
education officers superintendents and directors.
Thus, there are two types of supervisors, namely, internal and external supervisors in the school
system. External supervision in basic schools is district-based. The districts are divided into
circuits which are the centers of operations under circuit supervisors (Ghana Education Service,
2000). Among the functions of circuit supervisors, according to the Ghana Education Service
(2001) are:
1. Promoting teaching and learning in all basic schools.
2. Interpreting educational policies to teachers.
3. Promoting effective school management.
4. Liaising between the school and the District Education Office.
5. Organizing in-service courses for teachers.
6. Monitoring the achievement and performance of pupils and staff.
7. Promoting healthy school-community relations.
Internal supervision in the school is done by the head teacher. He is both the administrative and
instructional leader who ensures that successful learning takes place for every pupils in the
21
school (Commonwealth Secretariat, (1993; Lewis and Miel, 1972). Among the headteaher’s
duties are:
1. Managing people.
2. Managing teaching and learning resources.
3. Managing financial matters.
4. Managing co-curricular activities.
5. Managing instructional time.
6. Staff development.
7. Assessing teacher and pupil performance.
2.2. MODE OF INSTRUCTIONAL SUPERVISION
Gywnn (1961) identifies five types of supervision, namely, inspection, laissez-faire, coercive,
training and guidance, and democratic professional leadership.
Inspection
In the classical sense, supervision meant inspecting the work of teachers to ensure that they are
in conformity with laid down principles and methods of teaching (Nwokafor, et al. 1981;
Kochhar 1970; Gywnn 1961). They argue that school inspection was teacher-focused and school
system-centered. Kochhar maintains that this type of supervision assumed that things should be
as static as they were originally, even against the stark reality of changing trends.
Inspection was usually conducted by one person called the inspector who alone inspected the
school compound, and all school records including the accounts in addition to classroom work,
and whose style of supervision was the use of threats of discipline, firing and closure of schools
to instill fear or stamp his authority among teachers and pupils (Nwokafor, et al. 1981).
22
This sort of supervision often resulted in animosity between the inspector and the school
community (Bame, 1991). Gywnn (1961) concludes that inspection was not meant to help
teachers to improve upon instructional delivery, rather it was meant to retain teachers who did
what they were supposed to do, and fire those who could not perform.
Laissez- Faire Supervision
According to Gywnn (1961), laissez-faire type of inspection is a situation whereby each teacher
is allowed to teach in the manner he chooses. He claims that little effort is made to assist teachers
to improve the instructional programme. With this type of supervisory practice if the supervisor
leaves the working place the staff also leaves; on his return he would find the work place
deserted and the task incomplete (Drake and Roe, 1986). Gywnn is of the opinion that this
practice is not constructive as it is an evasion of the supervisor’s responsibility as a professional
leader to improve his school’s instructional programme.
Coercive Supervision
This type of supervision is similar to inspection in the sense that it is imposed and authoritarian
(Kochhar, 1970). This practice stems from the assumption that there are best methods of teaching
which are best known only to the supervisor, and who believes that the most effective way of
getting teachers to teach according to the prescribed methods is to use coercive methods
(Gywnn, 1961). Gywnn argues that the assumption that there is only one best way of teaching is
no longer tenable. He further argues that, this type of supervision promotes ‘feelings of
inadequacy and insecurity, frustration, fears and repressed antagonisms’ p. 142. He concludes
23
that, there is every indication that coercive supervision has never been effective in achieving
anything except pretences of dictated behavior which is destructive of good human relationships.
Drake and Roe (1986) advise that, instructional supervision should not be characterized by
coercion and intimidation which are usually counter-productive.
They are of the opinion that teachers today are knowledgeable professional people who should
not be told what to do, and how to do things.
Supervision as Training and Guidance
This type of supervision is the process whereby continuing education is given to the teacher to
improve upon his teaching (Gywnn, 1961). He insists that though this approach was a departure
from the coercive type of supervision whereby the teacher was forced to follow prescribed
methods, it was still assumed that there was a best known method of teaching, and it was the
supervisor who knew best how to teach and that the teacher was to improve this teaching in line
with the prescription of the supervisor. Thus, supervision was focused on the teacher.
Supervision as Democratic Professional Leadership
This type of supervision is the modern approach to supervision. Modern supervision aims at
improving the total teaching-learning process; it is the leadership offered to help the staff to
improve the instructional situation (Gwynn, 1961). Gwynn asserts that instead of directing the
staff on how best to teach, the supervisor and the staff together decide on the best approach to
improve the teaching-learning situation. He believes that modern supervision is: (a) Co-operative
in that the contributions of all members of staff are required to solve the educational problems of
the school; (b) A peer relationship in the sense that the supervisor is considered an equal who
offers specialized skills to the teachers as he also learns from them; (c) Experimental, because
24
the supervisor needs not enforce a predetermined pattern of educational practice, but has to lead
his/her staff in the constant search for better and effective ways of performing their duties,
bearing in mind that there is no one best ways of doing things. Gwynn further argues that the
scope of modern supervision is not limited to classroom visits, recommending instructional
materials and evaluation of staff and pupils, but it involves the total teaching-learning situation.
The total teaching-learning situation includes the curriculum, instructional materials, the school
community and the administrative factors involved. The scope of supervision is concerned with
all the factors that affect the learning and growing of pupils.
Drake and Roe (1986). In discussing modern supervision maintain that teachers should rather be
encouraged, and stimulated to improve teaching alternatives. They go on to say that the principal
or supervisor should avoid passing judgment or criticizing his subordinates.
They outline the following approaches to instructional supervision.
1. An atmosphere should be created to enable the teacher to feel free to share concerns with
principal or supervisor without each feeling being hurt, or the teacher disagreeing without
fear of being intimidated.
2. The principal or supervisor should realize that his position does not make him an expert.
3. The principal and the teacher should solve professional problems as colleagues and not in
a master-servant relation.
4. The teacher should feel that the principal values his or her growth as personal and
professional.
5. Feedback should be given to promote teachers’ professional competence.
6. Teaching involves creativity which is risk taking. Failure in some experiment or a new
method is therefore not a sign of incompetence.
25
7. The teacher feels professional freedom in that he or she may experiment with teaching
procedures and seek help in many different directions without being made to feel
inadequate.
8. We should understand that teaching is both rational and emotional and that discussions of
feeling and interpersonal relations are as important as talking about the teaching process
itself.
9. The development aspects of supervision should be seen as part of a normal growth
process, and not as correcting deficiencies.
According to Drake and Roe (1986), though the principal is administratively responsible for
instructional supervision, it will be a serious mistake to assume that he is an expert in any subject
or all the subjects in the school, or can best determine a specific teaching method or procedure
since there is no one best universally accepted teaching method.
The principal’s function in instructional supervision is the provision of motivation and support of
the staff, and the development of instructional teamwork to improve teaching and learning. To be
able to do this effectively, the supervisor or principal should exhibit a broader technical, human,
and conceptual skill.
Modern supervision of instruction includes supervisory visits that are, periodic survey visits, and
visitation conference, (Lewis and Miel 1972). They suggest that a supervisor could enter a
teacher’s classroom uninvited if a teacher has lost control of his class to take over to protect the
children.
If the staff, pupils, and parents are aware that the head of the school knows what is happening in
the school then he is effectively performing his function as a supervisor. (Com
monwealth Secretariat, 1993). The Commonwealth Secretariat recommends that visits to
26
classroom should form part of the educational leader’s routine activities because such visits do
not only help to establish professionalism among teachers, but also ensure good conduct among
teachers and pupils. Supervision today should emphasize on non-directive, collaborative, selfreflective and non-threatening methods of instructional improvement; but whenever necessary, a
directive or a prescriptive approach should be used, (Glickman, et al, 1998; Blasé and Blasé,
1999).
Techniques of Instructional Supervision
Glickman (1981) and Glatthorn (1984) argue that teachers are different and respond differently
to various supervisory techniques. They suggest the following options for supervision to meet
various teacher needs: clinical, collegial or peer supervision, individual or self-directed
supervision and informal supervision.
Clinical Supervision
According to Cogan (1973), clinical supervision is designed to improve students’ learning by
improving teachers’ classroom performance. It is concerned with data from the classroom
activities, the analysis of the data and the relationship between the teacher and supervisor.
Drake and Roe (1986), believe that clinical supervision produces a self-directed teacher who
analyses and seeks solutions to his or her own teaching problems with the help of another
professional. Clinical supervision emphasizes teacher growth in that the supervisor talks with the
teacher as a colleague to identify and clarify problems, and observes the teacher in a classroom
situation to solve the problems identified
27
Steps in Clinical Supervision
There are five main steps involved in clinical supervision. The steps are discussed in detail
below.
STEP 1:
The first step is called planning conference by Drake and Roe (1986), pre-observation
conference by Goldhammer (1969), and preconference with teacher by Glickman (1990).
Robbins and Alvy (1995), Glickman and Goldhammer said that this step is to establish rapport
and trust between the supervisor and the teacher. Beyond that, it is to build the teacher’s self
esteem. The teacher is given more opportunity to dominate the conference. The supervisor
engages the teacher in a conceptual rehearsal. According to Glickman, both the supervisor and
the teacher determine:
1. The reason and purpose of the observation.
2. The focus of the observation.
3. The method and form of observation to be used.
4. The time of the observation.
5. The time for the post conference.
6. This stage concludes agreement between the supervisor and the teacher, the reasons for
the supervision, the data to be collected, and the role of the supervisor.
STEP 2:
Step two is called data generation by Drake and Roe (1986), observation of teaching by Gold
hammer (1969) and observation of classroom by Glickman (1990).
28
The above authorities say that this stage of clinical supervision is the key stage which is the
actual and systematic observation of teaching. The teacher teaches alone, and the supervisor
supervises. There is no interaction between the supervisor and the teacher. Apart from direct
observation, data is also collected by interviewing students, collection of classroom artifacts,
analysis of records and scores. The notes that the supervisor takes should be descriptive rather
than judgmental. Video-taping and audio-taping equipment are useful in recording the actual
teaching.
STEP 3:
Step three is called analysis and strategy by Goldhammer (1969), analysis for feedback by Drake
and Roe (1986), analyzing and interpreting observation and determining conference approach by
Glickman (1990), and reflections on observation by Robbins and Alvy (1995). Glickman
observes that this is the stage whereby the supervisor converts the raw data or information
collected from the classroom observation into a meaningful form to reflect on the purpose of the
observation which was agreed upon by both parties at the preconference stage.
However, Robins and Alvy (1995) observe that at this stage, the supervisor makes the
information collected at the observation stage available to the teacher for analysis before the
post-observation conference. On the other hand, they say that the data generated could be given
to the teacher without any supervisory comments for him to study before the post observation.
Drake and Roe (1986) also say that this is the preparatory stage for the supervisor and the teacher
for the next conference. Each of them reflects on the lesson.
29
Again, Glickman (1990) says that in this step the supervisor determines what supervisory
strategy to adopt in the post-conference. He advises that, the supervisor should be aware of the
extent of his authority, and the competency or experience of the teacher.
STEP 4:
Robbins and Alvy (1995), and Goldhammer (1969) call this stage the post observation
conference. Drake and Roe (1986) call it teacher/supervisor conference, and Glickman (1990)
calls it post conference with the teacher. Glickman says that the post conference discusses the
analysis of the observation and produces a plan for instructional improvement. According to him,
the teacher is given the opportunity to open discussion on his or her actions in the classroom.
Robins and Alvy associate themselves with this assertion, and go on further to suggest that the
teacher should dominate the discussion. The superior’s role is not to pass any judgment that
would impact negatively on the performance of the teacher, but to provide him with the support
and encouragement that would help him to function effectively.
STEP 5:
Goldhammer’s post conference analysis, Glickman’s critique of the previous four steps and
Drake and Roe’s analysis and planning is the last stage of the clinical supervision process.
According to Drake and Roe (1986), this final stage of clinical supervision is self assessment of
the supervisor in the clinical experience.
Glickman (1990) says that it is the critique so the preceding four steps to establish whether the
format and procedures from the pre conference to the post conference were satisfactory and
whether revisions might be needed before going the cycle. Further Glickman (1990) contends
30
that the critique indicates that the superior is involved in an improvement effort in the same way
as the supervisee. He said that the feedback from the teacher gives the supervisor a chance to
decide on practices to continue, revise, or change when working with the teacher in the
classroom. Thus, the final state marks the end of one cycle and the beginning of another.
To conclude, clinical supervision aims at improving teachers’ professional competency through
collaboration with the supervisor or other teachers.
Collegial or peer Supervision
Glatthorn (1984) observes that collegial or peer supervision is the process within which teachers
accept to work together for their own professional development, usually by observing one
another in the classroom, providing each other with feedback, and trading in professional
concerns.
Glickman (1990) maintains that collegial or peer supervision is a technique which the supervisor
who combines instructional and administrative responsibilities could use to provide supervision
in his school. He observes that since teachers normally turn to each other for assistance more
often than to a supervisor, and since supervision is essentially concerned with improving
instructions rather than with summative evaluation, teachers assisting each other have become a
formalized and effective way of ensuring direct assistance to every staff member. Glickman
(1990) cautions that without planning and resources, peer or collegial supervision would
certainly result in a disaster. He suggests the following approach for effective peer or collegial
supervision:
1. The purpose and goal of supervision should be clarified to all staff members so that they
would have a sense of direction and achievement.
31
2. Training through demonstrations, modeling and practice is essential before peer
supervision is embarked on.
3. Peer supervision should be scheduled during the school day. This will require substitution
to relief teachers of their class duties so that they can observe their peers. Classes could
be combined at one time under one teacher, or the supervisor himself, and engage in filmshow, lecture or some other large group instruction.
4. Grouping for peer supervision should not be done on the basis of identical levels of
experience or competence. The group should consist of teachers with different abilities
who respect and communicate with each other.
5. The supervisor should monitor the needs of peer teams and step in when necessary, but
monitoring should be informal. The supervisor should be seen as a resource person.
Self-Directed or Individualized Supervision
Teachers, like other professionals differ in ability. Gywnn (1961) argues that the best way to help
a teacher is to help him as an individual. While a directive or peer approach to supervision is
appropriate for some teachers, a self-directed or individualized approach is ideal for others
(Glatthorn, 1984). Some teachers prefer to assume responsibility for their own professional
development. Such teachers would like to work on their own, or may have some difficulties
working with others. This approach to supervision would be suitable for competent teachers.
Glatthorn suggests the following guidelines for self-directed supervision.
1. Realistic and time bound targets based on previous experiences must be set.
2. The supervisor and the teacher should review the targets in a conference.
3. The supervisor should provide the teacher with a written summary of the conference.
32
4. The appraisal process which includes formal and informal classroom observations begins
after the conference. The teacher is responsible for collecting appraisal information to be
shared with the supervisor.
5. The supervisor and the teacher review the appraisal and together plan for the next cycle
of self-directed supervision.
On the other hand, some teachers may have problems which they would like to share with
only the supervisor (Gywnn, 1961). In this case, Gywnn suggests that the teacher and the
supervisor should discuss the nature of the problem and plan the time for the visit by the
supervisor. He maintains that a new and inexperienced teacher would require frequent
interaction with the supervisor to give him confidence or help him to adjust to his new
position. Gywnn believes that supervisory interactions should be characterized by god
human relationships and the purpose of it should be determined by the teacher rather than
the supervisor.
Informal Supervision
This approach to supervision is a supervision situation whereby no notice is given to the teacher
about visits made to his class by the supervisor. It is a frequent but brief casual encounter
between supervisors and teachers in their classrooms. Glatthorn (1984) suggest that, if this
approach to supervision would succeed, teachers and supervisors should see themselves as
instructional partners in any teaching and learning situation.
He recommends that all teachers should participate in formal supervision in addition to any one
of clinical, collegial/peer, or individualized supervision.
33
2.3. IMPACT OF SUPERVISION
Applegate and Lasley (1982) stressed that the experience provided in the classroom must
correspond to the goals established for the entire teacher education programme. The congruence
between the on-campus courses and the experiences of student teaching is important.
Cruickshank and Armaline (1986) stated that student teaching experiences should derive from
the total teacher education curriculum and that “each education unit should indicate specifically
what parts of that curriculum can best be attained via teaching experiences in the field and, in
addition, what prerequisites on campus teaching experiences are necessary”.
Many teacher education programmes exhibit on-campus programmes and field experience
(internship) that lack articulation, function independently, and probably even conflict with each
other ( Barnes , 1987). In these programmes, learning to teach is viewed as an experiential, craft
–oriented process that is guided indirectly. This incongruence model fosters the development of
student teachers who eventually deny allegiance to education courses, fail to understand any
theoretical foundation behind their own or their pupils’ action and claim that student teaching is
the only beneficial aspect of the teacher education programme.
In order to bridge the gap between theory and practice, there should be a course specific model to
link teacher education course to practical work and allow students to observe theory learned at
the university and applied them almost simultaneously in the school classroom. Denton (1982)
argued that early field experiences seem to have an effect on subsequent course achievement,
rather than on courses of which the field experience is part.
Copeland (1977) suggests that the major influence on a student- teacher’s acquisition of skills is
the ecology of the school, by which the pupils, physical environment, curriculum, community,
and other school related variables support and promote a student- teachers performance.
34
Research on how teachers learn to teach has become a major focus of research in teacher
education. Some scholars suggest internship programmes have a significant impact on teaching
learning (Armaline & Hoover 1989). However, other research studies on the role of internship in
learning to teach have described its influence on the professional development of neophyte
teachers as weak, contradictory, and ambiguous. It may not significantly alter the cumulative
effects of anticipatory socialization during childhood because many teachers continue to teach as
they were taught (Zeichner, 1986). They further suggest that internship may have a negative
impact because during the period student teachers become more negative, custodial and
authoritarian.
In spite of this expectation, past criticisms still remain that teaching is irrelevant to the “real
world” (Zeichner, 1986) of teaching and fail to concentrate on the practical expectations of
teaching. They further argue that there is a gap between theory that is taught in the university and
teaching practice that is linked to the classroom.
Doolittle et al (1993) emphasized that what we know about the students of teaching can affect
directly the quality of teacher education programme. The growing knowledge based about
incurring teacher recruits is critical if we are to design programmes built on the assumptions that
their beliefs and values must be understood and addressed if the programmes have a substantive
impact on their views of teaching and learning in physical education. Lartie (1975) took what
might be viewed as an extreme position when deciding on the relative merits of ones precious
professional experiences and teacher education programme when he suggested that biography
and pre career experiences are more important than teacher education. Extended field
experiences have been added to physical education teacher education programmes to provide
student teachers with more opportunities to develop effective teaching skills (Pieron and,
35
Cheffers 1988). Internship provides the students- teacher with the experience of the entire task a
regular teacher is called to perform while the teaching practice programme is confined to only
one task, which is classroom teaching. One way of ensuring that this occurs is through the
development of school-university partnership with students-mentees – being professional
nurtured by their subjects mentors (Students internship Handbook, 2004). Edward (1997) argued
that school university partnership provides the most successful teacher training programme. The
best way to improve school effectiveness is by investing in teacher training. Stronger teachers’
skills and qualification lead to greater students learning. Conversely, students pay an academic
price when they are taught by unqualified and uncertified teachers (Sadker and Sadker, 2000).
Another objective of internship is to expose student teacher to the reality involved in the teaching
profession. The best way to enable them to transfer theory to practical which is the core of the
teaching career is to pass through one year internship programme after the three years theoretical
courses. Yeatman and Sacks (1995) explained that teacher education programme is currently
expected to develop a nexus between theory and practice so that the training of student- teachers
becomes more effective and productive.
SUMMARY
From the review of literature relating to supervision, it is clear that supervision implies working
with and through people with available resources to achieve objectives and goals of an
organization or institution. It involves planning, decision-making, organizing, communicating,
influencing and evaluating. To achieve objectives and goals of this organization the supervisor
should be equipped with technical skills, interactive or interpersonal skills, and conceptual skills.
An effective supervisor acknowledges that no situation or circumstance is permanent, and people
36
vary in nature so he adopts the leadership style according to the needs of a particular situation or
circumstance or his staff.
In education, supervision is the assistance given to teachers for the improvement of instruction.
Supervision as a function, according to the literature, is not the reserve of a functionally called a
supervisor or should it be associated with a person since that position does not make one an
expert.
Two types of supervisors were identified in basic schools in Ghana. These are internal (schoolbased) and external (office-based) supervisors. The internal supervisors are the head teachers,
and the external supervisors comprise circuit supervisors, district and regional directors, and
personnel of the inspectorate division.
The literature identified the following types of supervision: (a) inspection (b) laissez-fair
supervision (c) coercive supervision (d) training and guidance and (e) democratic professional
leadership. The democratic professional leadership type of supervision was a popular choice of
supervision among the authorities studied. This type of supervision emphasizes on co-operation
and peer relationship between the supervisor and the supervisee in search for a better and
effective way of improving teaching and learning. Though this type of supervision which gives
autonomy and choice for teachers was popular among the authorities, it was also noted that for
some teachers in some circumstances, a restrictive or a directive method of supervision may be
useful.
Some techniques of supervision to meet various teacher needs were also considered. These were
clinical supervision, collegial/peer supervision, individualized or self-directed supervision and
informal supervision.
37
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.1. Introduction
The purpose of this chapter was to present the method used to examine how third- year Diploma
Basic Education student- teachers perceive supervision during internship at Atebubu College of
Education.
This chapter has the following sub-headings; respondents of the study, sampling and sampling
procedure, instrumentation, data collection procedure and data analysis.
3.2 Research Design
The survey design method was adopted for the study as it involves the perceptions of third year
student –teachers on internship. Survey involves the following: data gathering techniques:
interviews, observation and administration of questionnaire.
3.3. Respondents
The respondents for this survey research were of 50 Diploma Basic Education student -teachers
(35 males and 15 females) from Atebubu College of Education, Atebubu, who were on one- year
internship, in the Atebubu, Sene, and Pru Districts, all in the Brong Ahafo Region. There were
25 participants (15 males and 10 females) who were selected from the Atebubu District, 10 from
Sene District (8 males and 2 females) and 15 from Pru District (10 males and 5 female) from
Atebubu College of Education.
The student- teachers were surveyed in the first term of their internship from 5th October, to 15th
December, 2009.
38
3.4. Sampling and Sampling Procedure.
The researcher used convenience sampling method to select 50 student- teachers who were to
respond to levels concerning the likert type format rating, ranging from Strongly Agree (SA),
Agree (A), Disagree (D), and Strongly Disagree (SD).
The target population comprised 200 Diploma Basic Education student- teachers during the 2009
internship programme from the Atebubu, Sene, and Pru Districts, all in the Brong Ahafo Region
of Ghana to constitute a sample population. The main concern of the study was to have a fair
representation of all the population. As it was not feasible for the researcher to administer the
questionnaire to the entire target population, the researcher sampled 50 accessible studentteachers in the Atebubu, Sene, and Pru Districts from Atebubu College of Education to represent
the entire study population. Each participant was consulted and indicated by writing his or her
willingness to take part in the study. The first 50 student- teachers who willingly accepted to take
part in the study were given questionnaire with 25 items related to how third year Diploma Basic
Education student- teachers perceive supervision during internship.
This enabled the researcher to get accurate information from the respondents about how third
year Diploma Basic Education student- teachers perceive supervision during internship.
3.5. Instrumentation.
This study was conducted using the questionnaire mainly on how student-teachers view
supervisory practice during supervision.
The questionnaire was made up of two main parts
which include instructions to the respondents and items of research questions. The first 25 items
of the research data components were close-ended questions based on three sets of research
questions. . The instrument contains a total of 25 statements related to how student-teachers
view supervision during teaching practice. Respondents were asked to indicate their level of
39
concern for each statement on a 4 point Likert-type scale: Strongly Agree(S A), Agree (A),
Disagree (D), and Strongly Disagree (SD). The first two points of the likert-scale: (Strongly
Agree and Agree) show approval of perception of respondents toward the item on the
questionnaire whilst the other two (Disagree and Strongly Disagree) also indicate disapproval of
items on the questionnaire.
The questionnaire stressed how student-teachers perceive supervision during teaching practice.
Questionnaire was used because the entire population was highly literate or well-educated.
Questionnaire also offered the respondents complete anonymity. Again the respondents had
enough time to reflect over the questions, and that enabled them to give more meaningful
answers (Peil, 1995 and Babbie, 1992).
In order to ensure the validity and reliability of the research instrument, the questionnaire was
designed to reflect on the research questions. The items were first given to the supervisor to read
through. The supervisor made very careful suggestions to ensure their content and face validity.
Further, the instrument was pilot-tested which enable the researcher to revise the items in the
questionnaire. The Split-half correlation coefficient showing consistencies of the items were
computed to give r = 0.80.
3.6. Data Collection Procedure.
Before administering the questionnaire, the purpose of the study was explained to the
respondents. Every respondent was assured of anonymity and confidentiality. Respondents were
implored to answer the questionnaire according to their own views and feelings, rather than the
influence of others. The questionnaires were personally distributed to the respondents by the
researcher himself. The questionnaires were collected back three days after distribution.
40
The questionnaire was made up of two main parts which include instructions to the respondents
and items of research questions.
Respondents indicated their levels of opinions by ticking the appropriate box provided
corresponding to the level of concern on the Likert scale. (Refer to Appendix A).The answers
from the respondents to the various items provided a genuine and fair view of perception about
Diploma Basic Education student -teachers during internship in Atebubu College of Education.
3.7. Data Analysis
The data received from the field were organized in their various categories using tables and
percentages for easy discussion of results. Scientific Package for Social Science (SPSS)
programme was further used to run Chi-square (x2) analysis to enable the researcher to make
valid inference to the population of interest.
41
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULT, DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
4.1. Introduction
This chapter presents the results of the quantitative and qualitative analysis of the data collected
for the study as well as the discussion of the findings. The analysis was organized followed by
three research questions set for the study which emanates from the topic how student -teachers
view supervisory practice during teaching practice.
4.2.Results and Findings
Presentation and Analysis of Main Data.
Table 1.
Research Question One.
How do student-teachers view supervisory practice during SA
A
D
SD
5
3
1
(10%)
(6%)
(2%)
13
20
8
(26%)
(40%)
(16%)
12
3
1
(24%)
(6%)
(2%)
3
30
15
(4%)
(6%)
(60%)
(30%)
5
7
28
10
(10%)
(14%)
(56%)
(20%)
supervision?
1 Supervision from tutors
help improve teaching and 41
correct mistakes
(82% )
2. I see supervision as a bother, or worry, or means of 9
punishing student teachers.
(18%)
3. Supervision does not prepare student -teachers to 34
become effective teachers in future.
(68%)
4. Supervision is just a requirement for certification and 2
therefore not beneficial to student teachers.
5. Supervision is characterized by threats of discipline.
42
6. Supervision assumes that supervisors are superior to 14
8
24
4
(16%)
(48%)
(8%)
16
19
4
(32%)
(38%)
(8%)
8
14
10
(16%)
(28%)
(20%)
35
8
3
(70%)
(16%)
(6%)
Supervisors are viewed as people who come to 6
12
19
13
criticize student-teachers.
(24%)
(38%)
(26%)
22
6
2
(40%)
(44%)
(12%)
(4%)
2
5
25
18
(4%)
(10%)
(50%)
(36%)
20
22
6
2
(40%)
(44%)
(12%)
(4%)
2
7
22
19
(4%)
(14%)
(44%)
(38%)
22
10
8
10
(44%)
(20%)
(16%)
(20%)
210
195
225
120
(28%)
(26%)
(30%)
(16%)
student- teachers.
(28%)
7. Supervision does not stress strict adherence to and 11
implementation of policies, syllabus and specific (22%)
teaching methods.
8. Supervision is a chance to abuse and intimidate 18
student- teachers.
(36%)
9. Supervision is a form of evaluation, since it is used to 4
certify students pass or fail at the end of training.
10.
(8%)
(12%)
11. Supervision should be done by mentors of school of 20
practice only.
12. Supervision is a means of settling of old scores.
13. Supervision is not a means of checking of
student-teachers’ attendance.
14. Supervision restricts student- teachers from doing their
own work.
15. Supervision is finding faults with student- teachers.
TOTAL
43
Table1 statement 1 Contains responses from student- teachers on their views to research question
one which indicates that 82% of the respondents Strongly Agreed, 10% of the total respondents
Agreed while, 6% of the respondents Disagreed and 2% Strongly Disagreed respectively that
supervision from tutors help improve teaching and correcting of mistakes. Supervision, either in
the classical or modern sense, is to improve teaching and learning .How this would be achieved
depends on the method applied in supervision .Classical supervisory methods were teacherfocused or school-system centered (Nwokafor, et al.1981; Kochlar, 1970; Bame 1991).
Information from statement 2 shows that 40% and 8% of total respondents Disagreed and
Strongly Disagreed that Supervision is a bother or worry to student-teachers. However, 26%
Agreed while, 8% strongly Disagreed respectively. Since the percentage values for Disagreed
and Strongly Disagreed are greater than Agreed and Strongly Agreed percentage values, it is
accepted that student-teachers see supervision as a bother or worry to them.
Statement 3 indicates that 68% out of the total number of 50 respondents Strongly Agreed , 20%
of respondents Agreed, while 6% of the total number of respondents Disagreed, and 2 %
Strongly Disagreed respectively. It can be concluded that students- teachers do not see
supervision as preparing them to become effective teachers in future. Robin and Alvy (1995)
stressed that supervision provides support for teachers so that they could attain excellence.
Statement 4 above indicates that 60% and 30% of population Disagreed and Strongly Disagreed
respectively that supervision is just a requirement for certification and therefore not beneficial to
student teachers, while 6% Agreed, and 4% Strongly Agreed and support the statement because
44
supervision help them to be equipped with the necessary skills of teaching and also remove the
misconception they have about it during teaching practice.
Information from statement 5 shows that 56% Disagreed, 20% Strongly Disagreed while, 14%
Agreed, and 10% Strongly Agreed respectively. Since the percentage values for Disagreed and
Strongly Disagreed are greater than Strongly Agreed and Agreed, it is accepted that supervision
is being characterized by threats of discipline.
The above finding is also collaborated with the submission of (Nwokafor., et al. 1981; Kochhar,
1970; Bame, 1991) Inspection was usually conducted by one person called the Inspector who
alone inspected the school compound, and all school records including the accounts in addition
to classroom work, and those styles of supervision were the use of threats of discipline, firing
and closing down of schools to instill fear into teachers and pupils.
Report from statement 6 states that 48% of the total respondents Disagreed, 8% of the
respondents Strongly Disagreed, while 28% of the total respondents Strongly Agreed, and 16%
of respondents Agreed. Since the calculated percentage values for Disagreed and Agreed are
greater than those of Strongly Agreed and Agreed, it is concluded that supervisors are not being
superior to student-teachers during supervision.
This assumption has been discouraged by Drake (1986) who observed that the supervisor should
not think that his position makes him an expert, so he should solve professional problems with
his teachers as colleagues and not in a master-servant relation.
Statement 7 indicates that supervision does not stress strict adherence to and implementation of
policies, syllabus and specific teaching methods, hence, 38% Disagreed, 8% out of the total
45
number of 50 respondents Strongly Disagreed. However, 32% Agreed, while 22% Strongly
Agreed respectively. The table also revealed that the percentage values for Strongly Agreed and
Agreed are grater than those of Strongly Disagreed and Disagreed and it is concluded that
supervision does not stress strict adherence to and implementation of policies, syllabus and
specific teaching methods. However this would be achieved depending on the methods applied in
supervision.Classiscal supervisory methods were teacher-focused or school system centered
(Nwokafor, et al.1981).
Statement 8 spells out that supervision is a chance to abuse and intimidate student- teachers. Information
gathered indicated, 36% Strongly Agreed, 16% Agreed while, 28% Disagreed, and 20% Strongly
Disagreed that supervision gives chance to supervisors to abuse and intimidate student teachers.
However from the responses it was revealed that 14% and 10% of the total respondents
Disagreed and Strongly Disagreed to the fact that supervision does not give chance for
supervisors to abuse and intimidate student- teachers during teaching practice but rather to
provide support for teachers so that they attain excellence.
Statement 9, Supervision is a form of evaluation, since it is used to certify students pass or fail at
the end of training. Responding to the issue indicates that out of the total of 50 respondents 70%
Agreed, 8% Strongly Agreed and 16% Disagreed and 6% Strongly Disagreed. The statement
revealed that the percentage values for those Strongly Agreed and Agreed were greater than
those of Strongly Disagreed and Disagreed, it is therefore accepted that supervision is a form of
evaluation since it is used to certify students pass or fail at the end of training. This implies that
without teaching practice, trainees will lack the skills and methods of teaching. However Metzler
(1990) maintain that supervision is not to correct student mistakes but also point out their
strength.
46
Reports from Statement 10 states that 38% out of the total number of respondents Disagreed,
26% of respondents Strongly Disagreed, while 24% of total number of respondents Agreed and
12% of respondents Strongly Agreed. From the above submission, it was realized that
supervisors are seen as people who come to schools of practice during supervision to criticize
and not to encourage student –teachers as it was accepted by respondents for Strongly Disagreed
and Disagreed with the greatest percentage values.
Statement 11 indicated 44% and 40% of the sample Strongly Agreed and Agreed respectively
that supervision should be done by mentors of school of practice only. However, 12% Disagreed,
while 8% of the respondents Strongly Disagreed respectively. The calculated percentage values
for Strongly Agree and Agreed are greater than Strongly Disagreed and Disagreed which shows
that supervision should be done by mentors of schools of practice only. This is because of the
devil triangle between the college supervisor, mentor and Interns.
Statement 12 reveals that, out of the fifty (50) student-teachers selected from the 3rd year students
of Atebubu College of Education 50% of the total respondents Disagreed, 36% Strongly
Disagreed, 10% Agreed and 4% of the total respondents Strongly Agreed. The calculated
percentages value indicates that supervision should not be seen as a means of settling scores but
assisting the pre- teacher to improve upon his teaching skills and a form of evaluation since it is
used to certify students pass or fail at the end of training.
Statement 13 Supervision is not a means of checking of student-teachers’ attendance.
The information gathered shows that out of the 50 respondents selected for the study, 44%
Agreed, and 40% Strongly Agreed, while 12% Disagree and 4% Strongly Disagreed. The
statement revealed that those who responded for Strongly Agreed and Agreed weigh higher
47
percentage values than those who responded for Strongly Disagreed and Disagreed, and it is
accepted.
The evidence of supervision in teaching practice agrees with the notion shared by Glickman,
Gordon and Rose-Gordon (1998), who see supervision as the assistance for the improvement of
instruction. Glickman et al. declare that, “behind every successful school is an effective
supervision program” (P.9.). They consider supervision as glue or adhesive that pulls together
organizational goals and teacher and provides for improved learning. Ben Harris 1991; (as cited
in Glickman 1990) also argues that, supervision is related to instructing pupils through helping
teachers with instructions.
Statement 14, Supervision restricts student- teachers from doing their own work. Information
gathered indicated that, 44% and 38% of the population Disagreed and Strongly Disagreed
respectively that supervision is not used to restrict student- teachers from doing their own work
during teaching practice. However, 14% Agreed, while 4% Strongly Agreed. Since the
calculated percentage values for Disagreed and Strongly Disagreed are greater than Strongly
Agreed and Agreed, it is accepted that supervisors focus on supervision is not to restrict studentteachers from doing their work.
Information from statement 15 shows that 44%, Strongly Agreed, 20% of the population Agreed,
while 20% Strongly Disagreed and 16% Disagreed respectively. The table revealed that the
Strongly Agreed and Agreed values are greater than those of Strongly Disagreed and Disagreed
values, it is accepted that supervision is used as a tool to find fault with student- teachers during
teaching practice.
The above finding is in line with the Bame (1991) contribution, who asserted that Inspection is
characterized by fears among teachers as well as hatred by teachers for the inspectors since the
later (inspector) tries to find faults with the former (teacher).
48
The traditional perception of supervision held by teachers and supervisors suggest that, that
might be the practice in the schools today. Unfortunately, such restrictive and intimidating
methods of supervision do not promote effective teaching and learning. Supervisors should
therefore be made to understand that modern function of supervision is a co-operative effort in
which both the supervisor and the supervisee work together to achieve a common purpose.
Table 2.
Research Question two.
How do student teachers perceive the mode of supervision SA
during teaching practice?
1. Rules and principles of teaching should rigidly be 1
enforced in schools of practice during supervision.
(2%)
2. Supervision should not be undertaken throughout the three
terms of the academic year
3. Supervision should be done only by various subject tutors.
4. Supervisors should show concern only on learning task
instead of school activities during supervision.
5. Supervisors should not hold conference meetings with
interns before and after supervision.
TOTAL
A
D
SD
6
35
8
(12%)
(70%)
(16%)
19
12
6
13
(38%)
(24%)
(12%)
(26%)
3
5
20
22
(6%)
(10%)
(40%)
(44%)
2
5
28
15
(4%)
(10%)
(56%)
(30%)
20
22
6
2
(40%)
(44%)
(12%)
(4%)
45
50
95
60
(18%) (20%) (38%) (24%)
The results of analysis in statement one on respondents’ opinion on rules and principles should
rigidly be enforced in schools of practice during supervision showed that 70% Disagreed and
49
16% Strongly Disagreed as it was perceived by student-teachers during teaching practice, while
12%Agreed and 4% Strongly Agreed that rules and principles of teaching should not rigidly be
enforced in school of practice during supervision.
The above findings is also collaborated with submission of Drake (1986), this method of
supervision leads to pretences of dictated behaviour which is destructive of good human
relationship. In any case, this practice would be justifiable in schools where a greater number of
the teachers are not professionally trained and therefore needed to be told what to do (Private
schools). This is because it is believed that there must be autonomy as against bureaucratic
rigidity and control. In order words it is believed that when the organization is dealing with
professionals then they should be given enough room to operate and not rigidly controlled.
Table 2 statement 2 shows that out of the total of 50 respondents, 38% Strongly Agreed and 12
respondents 24% Agreed that supervision should not be undertaken throughout the three
academic terms of the academic year, while 26% Strongly Disagreed, and six of the total
respondents, 12% Disagreed that supervision should be undertaken throughout the three
academic terms of the academic year.
The implication is that student-teachers had not settled down with the benefits of supervision to
be carried out for the three terms.
Inspite of this expectation, past criticisms still remain that teaching is irrelevant to the “real
world” (Zeichner, 1986) of teaching and fail to concentrate on the practical expectations of
teaching. They further argue that there is a gap between theory that is taught in the university and
teaching practice that is linked to the classroom.
50
Table 2 statement 3 indicated, that out of the total respondents of 50 interns doing their
internship programme at Atebubu, Sene and Pru Districts, 44% Strongly Disagreed, (40%) of
respondents Disagreed, 6% Strongly Agreed, and 10% Agreed to the statement that supervision
should be done only by various subject tutors. This implies that the average scores will be fair,
just, and equitable to use comments from subject tutors (supervisors) to grade the performance of
student-teachers on internship. The interns believe that subject teachers will be more effective in
supervising students in their subject area than those from other subject areas.
Information from statement 4 shows that 56% Disagreed, 30% Strongly Disagreed, while
10%Agreed, and 4% Strongly Agreed that supervisors should show concern on only learning
task instead of school activities during supervision.
Anyway, education aims at the holistic development of the child, therefore effective supervision
should not be judged by only examination results or good academic performance but also
participation and good performance in the co-curricular activities.
The above finding is in line with Nwokafor, et al. (1981) and the Commonwealth Secretariat,
(1993) who argue that effective supervision should focus on the general organization of the
school which is not be limited to pupils performance.
Report from statement 5 states that 44% of the total number of respondents Strongly Agreed,
40% of the respondents agreed, while 12% of total number of respondents Disagreed, and 4%
Strongly Agreed. Since the total percentages of Strongly Agreed and Agreed are greater than
Strongly Disagreed, and Agreed, it is therefore concluded that supervisors should not hold
conference with interns before and after supervision.
51
The above finding is also collaborated with the submission of Drake (1986) who believe that
clinical supervision produces a self-teacher who analysis and seek solutions to his or her own
teaching problems with the help of another professional. Clinical supervision emphasizes teacher
growth in that the supervisor talk’s with the teacher as a colleague to identify and clarify
problems and observes the teacher in a classroom situation to solve the problems identified.
Research Question Three.
SA
A
D
SD
8
35
4
3
16%
70%
8%
6%
2. Supervision helps develop managerial and 19
instructional strategies of teaching.
38%
12
6
13
24%
12%
26%
3. Supervision helps student teachers to prepare 22
adequate lesson notes
44%
15
5
8
30%
10%
16%
4. Supervision enables student- teachers to 16
acquire teaching skills.
32%
26
4
4
52%
8%
8%
5. Supervision is focus on how student- 20
teachers improve pupils’ performance.
40%
22
6
2
44%
12%
4%
110
25
30
10%
12%
What is the impact of supervision on student
teachers during teaching practice?
1. Supervision serves as Training and
Guidance.
TOTAL
85
34% 44%
Table 3 Statement 1 above indicates that 70% out of a total number of 50 respondents responded
Strongly Agreed, 16% Agreed, while 8% of the total number responded Disagreed and 6%
responded Strongly Disagreed. Since the total percentages of Strongly Agreed and Agreed are
52
greater than Strongly Disagreed, and Disagreed, it was concluded that supervision serves training
and guidance to student-teachers
In line with the above finding (Gywnn, 1961) opined that this type of supervision is the process
whereby continuing education is given to the teacher to improve upon his teaching. He insists
that though this approach was a departure from the coercive type of supervision whereby the
teacher was forced to follow prescribed methods, it was still assumed that there was a best
known method of teaching, and it was the supervisor who knew best how to teach and that the
teacher was to improve this teaching in line with the prescription of the supervisor. Thus,
supervision was focused on the teacher.
Report from statement 2 states that 38% of total number of respondent Strongly Agreed, 24% of
respondents Agreed, while 26% of total number of respondents Strongly Disagreed and 12% of
respondents Disagreed. Since the percentages of Strongly and Disagreed are less than Strongly
Agreed and Agreed it was concluded that supervision helps to developed managerial and
instructional strategies and broaden their horizon of teaching and also make them effective
teachers in the future. They claimed that managerial strategies are the procedures that the
teacher adapts to create an environment where instruction and learning can occur. Effective
teaching is strongly and highly related to the organization of students learning environment, good
instructional strategies and student achievement.
Statement 3 above indicates that 44% out of the total number of 50 respondents Strongly Agreed,
30% of the respondents Agreed, while 16% of total number of respondents Strongly Disagreed,
and 10% Strongly Disagreed respectively. Since the percentages of Strongly Agreed and Agreed
are more than Strongly Disagreed and Disagreed, it therefore meant that supervision helps
student-teachers to prepare adequate lesson notes which helped them improved upon their
53
methodology when teaching. This was made possible through the comments and criticisms from
their supervisors which actually prepared them well to teach in future, since lesson notes
preparing is one of the requirements as having passed or failed at the end the internship program.
Information from statement 4 indicates that 32% Strongly Agreed, 52% Agreed, while 8%
Strongly Disagreed and 8% Strongly Disagreed that supervision enables student-teacher acquire
supervisory skills during teaching practice. This goes a long way to say that supervision is not
only to correct student –teachers mistakes but also helps them to acquire supervisory skills.
This finding is agreed with the studies of (Belt, 1994; Hersey& Blanchard1998.) and Okumbe
(1998) a supervisor should be equipped with the following skills: technical, human and
conceptual skills.
Technical skills refer to the ability to apply knowledge, methods, techniques, experience and
equipment to perform specific tasks effectively. Even though supervisors need not be the best
among employees, they must not be the worst and that supervisors need to have enough technical
knowledge so as to pass sound judgments, and offer technical assistance to other employees in
his department.
Human skills refer to interpersonal or interactive skills. Supervisors/managers should be capable
of working with and through people by applying motivational and behaviorist techniques to get
the best out of them. Human relations skills help supervisors to act both officially and humanely
This involves the ability to acquire, analyze and interpret information in a logical manner. The
supervisor/manager should be capable of understanding the intricacies of the organization as a
whole, and act in accordance with its objectives, rather than pursuing a parochial or personal
interest.
54
The results of analysis on respondents opinion on Statement 5 has shown that 44% of the total
number of respondents Agreed, 40% of respondents Strongly Agreed, while 2% of total number
of respondents Disagreed and 4% of respondents Strongly Agreed. Since the percentages values
of Strongly Agreed and Agreed are greater than the values of Strongly Disagreed and Disagreed
values. It implies that supervision improves pupil performance.
Supervision, either in the classical or modern sense, is to improve teaching and learning. How
this would be achieved depends on the method applied in supervision. Classical supervisory
methods were teacher-focused or school-system centred (Nwokafor, et. 1981:1970: Bame, 1991)
The analysis of data utilized inferential statistics of Chi-square at 0.05 alpha level.
Table 4
Hypothesis SA
Ho 1
Ho 2
Ho 3
Total
14
(28%)
9
(18%)
17
(34%)
40
(27%).
A
D
SD
Total
DF
P
50
Critical Cal.
Value
Value
7.82
2.320
13
(26)
10
(20%)
22
(44%)
45
(30%)
15
(30%)
19
(38%)
5
(10%)
39
(26%)
8
(16%)
12
(24%)
6
(12%)
26
(17%)
3
.509
50
7.82
4.880
3
.181
50
7.82
16.720
3
.001
150
100%
Hypothesis 1: Chi-square critical value =7.82, calculated value =2.320, df = 3, p < .509
The results obtained in table 4 shows that the Chi-square (X2) calculated value 2.320 is less than
critical value 7.82 at 3 degree of freedom. Since the Chi square calculated value is less than the
critical value, the hypothesis which stated that there is no significant difference about how
55
student-teachers view supervisory practice during supervision is here by accepted. Lucio and
McNeil (as cited in Campbell, et al 1977) are of the view that supervision is about the
determination of ends to be achieved, the process and the procedures for attaining the goals, and
the evaluation of results. The Dictionary of Education (as cited in Chester and Marie, 1960)
defines supervision as leadership provided by designated school officials to teachers and other
educational workers for the improvement of instruction. Mackenzie (as cited in Glickman, 1990)
observes that supervision is the function in schools that draws together the discrete elements of
instructional effectiveness’s into whole-school action.
Glickman (1990) maintains that collegial or peer supervision is a technique which the supervisor
who combines instructional and administrative responsibilities could use to provide supervision
in his school. He observes that since teachers normally turn to each other for assistance more
often than to a supervisor, and since supervision is essentially concerned with improving
instructions rather than with summative evaluation, a teacher assisting each other has become a
formalized and effective way of ensuring direct assistance to every staff member. Glickman
(1990) cautions that without planning and resources, peer or collegial supervision would
certainly result in a disaster. He suggests the following approach for effective peer or collegial
supervision:
Hypothesis 2: Chi-square critical value= 7.82, calculated value =4.880 df= 3, p < .181
The results obtained in table 4 shows that the Chi –square (X2) calculated value 4.880 is less than
the critical value 7.82 at 3 degree of freedom. Since the calculated Chi-square is also less than
the critical value, we accept the null hypothesis that the mode of supervision in Colleges of
Education would not be significantly perceived by student-teachers.
56
The results explain that student-teachers do not see the importance of the mode of supervision as
a means of helping them to develop professionally. This results supported by the past criticisms
that teaching is irrelevant to the “real world” (Zeichner, 1986) of teaching and fail to concentrate
on the practical expectations of teaching. They further argue that there is a gap between theory
that is taught in the university and teaching practice that is linked to the classroom.
However, in order to bridge the gap between theory and practice, the course specific model
should link teacher education course to practical work and allow students to observe theory
learned at the university and applied them almost simultaneously in the school classroom.
Denton (1982) argued that early field experiences seem to have an effect on subsequent course
achievement, rather than on courses of which the field experience is part.
This sort of supervision often resulted in animosity between the inspector and the school
community (Bame, 1991). Gywnn (1961) concludes that inspection was not meant to help
teachers to improve upon instructional delivery, rather it was meant to retain teachers who did
what they were supposed to do, and fire those who could not perform.
This therefore explains that student-teachers do not perceive the mode of supervision as a means
of helping them to develop professionally, but rather characterized by evaluation, settling of old
scores and fault finding.This perception if not erase will continue to affect student-teachers and
prevent them from benefiting from teaching practice programme.
In spite of student-teachers perception that supervisory practice is not significant during teaching
practice, empirical results from related literature claim that supervisory practice improve preteacher as well as in-service teachers’ teaching effectiveness.
57
Hypothesis 3: Chi-square critical value= 7.82, calculated value =16.720 df = 3, p > .001.
The results obtained in table 4 shows that the Chi –square (X2) calculated value 16.720 is greater
than the critical value 7.82 at 3 degree of freedom. Since the calculated Chi-square is greater than
the critical value, we reject the null hypothesis which stated that impact of supervision will not
be significantly perceived student-teachers It therefore means that student-teachers significantly
perceive the impact of supervision. In support of the above result, Robin and Alvy (1995) stress
that supervision supports teachers so that they could attain excellence.
In their opinion, supervision involves the refinement of knowledge and skill regarding effective
teaching and learning. They further argue that supervision is formative process which involves
rehearsals. Glickman, Gordon and Ross-Gordon (1998), define supervision as the assistance for
the improvement of instruction. Glickman et al. declare that, “behind every successful school is
effective supervision program” p. 9. They consider supervision as glue or adhesive that pulls
together organizational goals and teacher needs and provides for improved learning. Ben Harris
(as cited in Glickman 1990) also argues that supervision is related to instructing pupils through
helping teachers with instructions.
On the contrary, research on how teachers learn to teach has become a major focus of research in
teacher education. Some scholars suggest internship programmes have a significant impact on
teaching learning (Armaline & Hoover 1989). However, other research studies on the role of
internship in learning to teach have described its influence on the professional development of
neophyte teachers as weak, contradictory, and ambiguous. It may not significantly alter the
cumulative effects of anticipatory socialization during childhood because many teachers continue
to teach as they were taught (Zeichner, 1986). Not withstanding the perception, student-teachers
significantly perceive the impact of supervision during teaching practice as a means of helping
them to develop professionally.
58
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 SUMMARY
This chapter presents the summary of the study, and conclusions drawn from the study and
recommendations. The purpose of the study was to find out how student -teachers view
supervisory practice during teaching practice. Literature on the topic was reviewed under the:
The concept of supervision, functions of supervision, the supervisor, supervisory practices,
supervision of instruction, and types of instructional supervision.
The target population of the study comprised, only third year student- teachers of 2009 batch
doing their internship in Atebubu, Sene, and Pru Districts of Brong Ahafo Region, all of Atebubu
College of education.
Questionnaires were the instrument used for the collection of data. The data collected were
analyzed using the descriptive statistics as tables and percentages. Inferential statistic Chi- square
(X2) was also used to analyze the data for accuracy and relevant results for generalization.
The results were that there is no significant difference about student-teachers perception of
supervisory practice and mode of supervision during teaching practice. However, there was
significant difference about student-teachers perception on the impact of supervision during
teaching practice
5.2 CONCLUSION
Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions were drawn:
College supervisors are mainly engaged in the supervision of student- teachers during teaching
practice, vetting of lesson notes, and grading of student- teachers during supervision.
59
Student teachers view supervision as teacher focused which does not conform to policies,
syllabuses, and specific teaching methods shared among most student teachers. If such outmoded
concept of supervision is not discarded among student- teachers, then they will continue to view
supervision as ineffective for professional development.
5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS
The following recommendations are made based on the findings and the conclusions of the
study.
Student-teachers should be well informed about the functions of supervision to erase the
outmoded perception that supervision is teacher-focused, restrictive and intimidating so that each
will cooperate towards the success of the teaching practice program.
Frequent in-service courses should be organized for both student teachers and colleges of
education supervisors to up-date their knowledge and skills so that they would be abreast of the
changing trends in supervision. This should be based on effective supervision and appraisal of
teachers’ performance which can identify the needs of the teachers.
Supervisors should endeavour to promote cordiality relationship between them and their
supervisees since the success of supervision depends on the harmony among various
stakeholders.
Supervisors should establish and maintain an accountability system so that student teachers are
held accountable for their teaching performance and improvement.
Supervision should be a direct and clinical in its nature. It should embrace a pre-observation
conference, observational, analysis and strategy and post conference.
60
Observation of pre-service teachers’ behaviours should be systematic and based on valid
observational data. Conferences should be based on objectives data in order to monitor and
analysis teaching behaviour.
Strengthen the colleges of education with adequate logistics to produce team supervision which
appears to be cost effective and cost efficient and in addition, plans should be available to release
adequate funds timely to the colleges of education supervisors to enable supervision to be under taken throughout the two semesters of the academic year.
The Ghana education service should provide the necessary logistics such as transport and
teaching and learning materials to ensure effective supervision of student- teachers instead of
leaving the burden for the student teachers and in addition, concrete efforts must be made by the
Ghana education service to actively involve in the supervision of student teachers at the colleges
of education.
Student-teachers should be properly orientated on their responsibilities and duties of teaching
practice and adhere to all agreed principles and code of conduct regarding to the IN-IN-OUT
programme.
For further research, the researcher should administer the questionnaire during third term with
increased sample to find out whether there will be a change in results.
61
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66
APPENDICES.
APPENDIX A
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR STUDENT - TEACHERS.
QUESTIONNAIRE ON HOW STUDENT - TEACHERS VIEW
SUPERVISORY PRACTICE DURING SUPERVISION.
Dear Respondent,
This questionnaire is to solicit your views on the above topic. You are
kindly requested to complete this questionnaire as frankly as possible.
Your response will be kept confidential and shall be used only for this research work only.
Thank you.
SECTION.1
Statement in this section concerns, how student teachers view supervisory practice during
supervision?
Please, indicate your perception of supervision on the following four points.
The scale notation is S A = Strongly Agree. A = Agree.
Disagreed
67
D = Disagree.
S D =Strongly
How do student-teachers view supervisory practice during SA
supervision?
1. Supervision from tutors
help improve teaching and
correct mistakes
2. I see supervision as a bother, or worry, or means of
punishing student teachers.
3. Supervision does not prepare student -teachers to
become effective teachers in future.
4. Supervision is just a requirement for certification and
therefore not beneficial to student teachers.
5. Supervision is characterized by threats of discipline.
6. Supervision assumes that supervisors are superior to
student- teachers.
7. Supervision does not stress strict adherence to and
implementation of policies, syllabus and specific
teaching methods.
8. Supervision is a chance to abuse and intimidate
student- teachers.
9. Supervision is a form of evaluation, since it is used to
certify students pass or fail at the end of training.
10. Supervisors are viewed as people who come to criticize
student-teachers.
11. Supervision should be done by mentors of school of
68
A
D
SD
practice only.
12. Supervision is a means of settling of old scores.
13. Supervision is not a means of checking of
student-teachers’ attendance.
14. Supervision restricts student- teachers from doing their
own work.
15. Supervision is finding faults with student- teachers.
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APPENDIX B
Statement in this section concerns what is the mode of supervision in Atebubu College of
Education? Please, rate your perception of supervision on the following four-point scale.
The scale notation is SA=Strongly Agree. A=Agree. SD=Strongly Disagree. D=Disagree
How do student teachers perceive the mode of supervision SA
during teaching practice?
1. Rules and principles of teaching should rigidly be
enforced in schools of practice during supervision.
2. Supervision should not be undertaken throughout the three
terms of the academic year
3. Supervision should be done only by various subject tutors.
4. Supervisors should show concern only on learning task
instead of school activities during supervision.
5. Supervisors should not hold conference meetings with
interns before and after supervision.
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A
D
SD
APPENDIX C
In this section you are to indicate your views on the impact of supervision on student-teachers of
school of practice. You are to rate yourself with the following four point-scale.
SA=Strongly Agree A= Agree. SD= Strongly Disagreed. D=Disagree.
SA
What is the impact of supervision on student
teachers during teaching practice?
1. Supervision serves as Training and
Guidance.
2. Supervision helps develop managerial and
instructional strategies of teaching.
3. Supervision helps student teachers to prepare
adequate lesson notes
4. Supervision enables student- teachers to
acquire teaching skills.
5. Supervision is focus on how studentteachers improve pupils’ performance.
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A
D
SD