9-16-09
Science Notes:
Ch. 1, section 1The Air Around You
After the lesson, you should
be able to
 1. Describe the composition of the
earth’s atmosphere.
 2. State how the atmosphere is
important to living things.
Key Terms:
 Weather- condition of the earth’s
atmosphere at a particular time and
place
 Atmosphere- envelope of gases that
surrounds the planet
 Ozone- form of oxygen that has 3
oxygens instead of 2.
 Water vapor- water in the form of
gas.
Composition of
Atmosphere
 Nitrogen- 78%
 Oxygen – 21%
 All other gases-Carbon Dioxide, Water
vapor, many other gases, particles and
solids – 1%
Nitrogen an element
 colorless, odorless gas
 6th most abundant gas in the universe
 Most abundant gas in atmosphere - 78%
mostly given off by volcanoes
Oxygen

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Colorless
Odorless
Tasteless
Denser than air
Slightly soluble in water
Poor conductor of heat and electricity
Supports combustion but does not burn
Extremely active, forming compounds
with all the elements except the inert
gases
Preview-O3/ozone
 Ozone or trioxygen (O3) has three
oxygen atoms.
 2 kinds:
 Ground-level ozone - air pollutant with
harmful effects on the respiratory
systems of animals and humans.
 upper atmosphere ozone filters
damaging ultraviolet light from reaching
the Earth's surface. It is present in low
concentrations throughout the Earth's
atmosphere.
Carbon Dioxide
Carbon Dioxide 0.038%
CO2 (O=C=0)
Why is it important?
Essential to life
Plants need it to produce food and the
plants are needed to give off oxygen for us
to breathe.
 This is done through the process of
photosynthesis (removes CO2) and
respiration (releases CO2).

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Importance of the
Atmosphere
 Earth’s Atmosphere
makes conditions suitable
for living things.
 Traps energy from the
sun that allows water to
exist as a liquid.

End.
Getting this!
 1. Demonstrations- see sheet
 2. Lake Nyos Story
 3. Horseshoe Lake in California video
clip
Lake Nyos--The Deadly
Eruption
Horseshoe Lake-Short Video
Clip
 http://bbs.keyhole.com/ubb/ubbthreads.p
hp?ubb=showflat&Number=1070068&sit
e_id=1#import
9-17-09
Ch.1, section 2 Air
Pressure
After the lesson, you should
be able to…
 Identify some properties of air
 Name instruments that are used
to measure air pressure
 Explain how increasing altitude
affects air pressure and density
Key Terms:
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Density
Pressure
Air pressure
Barometer
Mercury Barometer
Aneroid Barometer
Altitude
Properties of Air
 Air has mass, density and pressure.
 Density-the amount of mass in a
given volume
 Density – mass(g)/volume (ml)
Pressure The force pushing on an area.
The weight of the atmosphere
exerts a force on surfaces.
 Air pressure -is the result of
a column of air pushing down
on an area.
Air pressure is defined as the weight of
the air in a column stretching from
the surface to the top of the atmosphere.
Balanced and Unbalanced
Pressure-
Measuring air pressure
 Barometer- instrument that
measures air pressure
 Mercury Barometer-consists of a
glass tube partially filled with
mercury, with its open end
resting in a dish of mercury
 Aneroid Barometer-measures
changes in wind speed without
using a liquid
Mercury Barometer
Aneroid Barometer
Unit of Air Pressure
 Inches of Mercury – (if the
column in a mercury barometer
is 30 inches high, air pressure
is “30 inches”
 Millibars – 1 inch of mercury =
33.87 millibars. 30 inches of
mercury = 1,016 millibars.
Barometer readings in
tracking the weather The average air pressure world
wide is 29.92 inches.
 A drop of less than an inch can
signal a major storm
 A rise of less than an inch can
signal fair weather.
Understanding Pressure
 Pressure Demos and Discussion
Questions
Question 1-
What is the
relationship
between altitude
and air pressure?
Question 2-
Why is air
pressure greater
at sea level?
Question 3-
Is density higher
or lower at high
altitudes?
Question 4-
Areas with high
altitudes, such as
mountain ranges,
usually have low or high
pressure? Why?
Question 5-
Areas with low
altitudes, such as
areas at or below sea
levels, usually have low
or high pressure?
Why?
Altitude also affects density
 As you go up through the
atmosphere, the density of
the air decreases-meaning the
molecules that make up the
atmosphere are further apart
at high altitudes than they
are at sea level.
9-22-09
Ch. 1, sect. 3 Layers
of the Atmosphere
By the end of this section,
you should be able to:
 Identify the four main
layers of the atmosphere.
 Describe the
characteristics of each
layer.
Layers of the Atmosphere
 Troposphere
 Stratosphere
 Mesosphere
 Thermosphere
http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/earth/Atmosphere/layers.html
Meteoroid and Meteorite
A meteoroid is a sand- to bouldersized particle of debris in the Solar
System. The visible path of a
meteoroid that enters Earth's
atmosphere is called a meteor. If a
meteoroid reaches the ground, it is
then called a meteorite.
Troposphere
 Tropo means “turning” or
“changing”
 we live here
 conditions are more
variable than in the other
layers.
 layer where the weather
occurs.
Stratosphere
 Lower stratosphere is
colder.
 Upper stratosphere is
warmer- “good” ozone in
middle absorbs energy
from the sun, converts it
into to heat, which warms
the air.
Mesosphere
 Meso means “middle”
 Layer that protects
earth from being hit by
most meteoroids (chunks
of metal and stone from
space).
Thermosphere
 “thermo” means heat
 Outermost layer
 Thin air-0.001 percent as
dense as at sea level.
 Divided into 2 layersIonosphere and
Exosphere
This is an image of the space shuttle as it is orbiting around the Earth.
The space shuttle orbits in the thermosphere of the Earth.
Ionosphere
 Lower layer of thermosphere
 Energy from sun causes gas
molecules to become
electrically charged particles
called ions.
 Radio waves bounce off ions
 Light displays from particles
from sun that enter
ionosphere near poles. (Auroras)
Exosphere
 Outer portion of thermosphere
Video
 http://video.google.com/videosearch?q
=aurora%20borealis#
9-23-09
Ch. 1,sect 4.
Air Quality
After the lesson, your should
be able to…
 Identify the major source
of air pollution
 Identify what causes smog
and acid rain
 Describe what can be done
to improve air quality.
Air around us contains…
Pollutants- harmful
substances in air,
water, soil.
Sources of Pollution
 Natural Sources- Forest
fires, soil erosion, and
dust storms, pollen, mold,
erupting volcanoes
spewing dust, ashes and
poisonous gases.
Sources of Pollution
 Human Activities –Farming
and construction.
 Most comes from burning of
fossil fuels (coal, oil, gasoline,
and diesel fuel)
 Burning produces Carbon
Monoxide, Nitrogen Oxides,
Sulfur Oxides
 Almost ½ comes from
cars/motor vehicles.
Smog and Acid Rain
Burning of Fossil Fuels
cause smog and acid rain
London-Type fog- coal
smoke combines with
water droplets in humid
air.
Photochemical Smog
 Brown haze that develops
in sunny cities.
 Formed by action of
sunlight on pollutants
(hydrocarbons and
nitrogen oxides)
 Chemicals react to form
brownish mixture of ozone
and other pollutants.
Acid Rain
 Rain that has more acid than
normal.
 Forms from nitrous and
sulfur oxides that combine
with water in the air to form
nitric acid and sulfuric acid.
 Can damage surfaces, lakes,
ponds
Improving Air Quality
 Laws have been passed to
reduce air pollution
 Newer cars and power
plants make less pollutants,
but…
 There are still more cars
on the road and more power
plants burning fossil fuels.
Air Quality Index
 http://www.bing.com/videos/search?q=air
+quality+index&adlt=strict&docid=107593
7345675&mid=C502426E03905C3E0817
C502426E03905C3E0817&FORM=VIVR
10#
Next- Effects of Pollution

http://www.usatoday.com/weather/tg/wglobale/wglobale.htm

Question of the Day: Without the Sun would Earth have weather?

View online pictures of the the sun and the earth

iJournal Question: What is energy? Where does the earth's energy
come from?

Observe a demonstration of how the Sun's energy reaches Earth and
participate in a discussion about what you observed.

Big Idea Statement: Weather is the Movement of Energy

Complete Movement of energy learning tool
10-13-09
Ch.2, sect. 1
Energy in Earth’s
Atmosphere
Key Terms
 Electromagnetic waves
 Radiation
 Infrared Radiation
 Ultraviolet Radiation
 Scattering
 Greenhouse effect
Energy from the Sun…
 Travels to earth as
electromagnetic waves.
 Electromagnetic waves-a
form of energy that moves
through space.
 Classified by wavelength, or
distance between the waves.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
 Color the Electromagnetic Spectrum in
your notes. Label Spectrum.
 Electromagnetic Waves
 http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/waves_
particles/index.html
 Water Waves
 http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/waves_
particles/waves.html
 Stadium Waves
 http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/waves_
particles/stadium_wave.html
Radiation-
Direct transfer of
energy by
electromagnetic waves.
Most energy from
the sun
 travels to Earth in form of
visible light and infrared
radiation.
 a small amount arrives as
ultraviolet radiation.
Infrared Radiation
↓
Visible Light ↓
↓ Ultraviolet Radiation
Visible Light
 Red, Orange, Yellow,
Green, Blue and Violet
 Red has the longest
wavelength.
 Violet has the shortest
wavelength
Non-Visible Radiation
 Infrared Radiation-has
wavelength are longer than red
light.
  Not visible but felt as heat.
 Ultraviolet Radiationwavelengths shorter than
violet.
 Can cause sunburns, skin cancer
and eye damage.
Infrared Radiation
↓
Visible Light ↓
↓ Ultraviolet Radiation
Energy in Atmospheresunlight
 Some sunlight is absorbed
or reflected by atmosphere
before it can reach the
surface.
 Rest of the sunlight passes
through atmosphere to
surface.
Absorption
 Ozone layer in
stratosphere absorbs most
ultraviolet radiation.
 Water vapor and CO2
absorbed infrared
radiation/
 Clouds, dust, and other
gases absorb energy.
“Scattering”
Dust particles and
gases in atmosphere
reflect light in all
directions.
Energy at Earth’s Surface
 ½ sun’s energy is absorbed
by land and water and
changed into heat.
 When earth’s surface is
heated, it radiates most of
the energy back into the
atmosphere as infrared
radiation.
Greenhouse Effect
 Process by which gases hold
heat in the atmosphere- much
of the infrared radiation can
not travel back to space so it
is absorbed by water vapor,
carbon dioxide, methane and
other gases.
10-14-08
Lab Notebook:
Heating Earth’s
Surface
Problem
 How do the heating and
cooling rates of sand and
water compare?
Research
 Heating –process of warming
something:
 Cooling-To make less warm.
Hypothesis
 Which do you think will
heat up faster?
 If I increase/decrease the
rough texture/liquid
form…, then the rate of
heating will
increase/decrease.
Experiment
 -Read pg 40-41 in text.
Data Table See Word Document or text page 40.
Analysis
 See page 41 in text. Answer questions
1-8
Conclusion
 Two statements.
 First statement –tells whether
your hypothesis was correct of
not.
 Second statement-hypothesis
written in past tense.
10-17-09
Ch.2, sect. 2 Heat
Transfer
Key Terms:
 Temperature
 Thermal energy
 Thermometer
 Heat
 Conduction
 Convection
 Convection currents
Thermal Energy and
Temperature
 Temperature- average amount of
energy of motion of each particle in
a substance
 Thermal energy- total energy of
motion.
 i.e- hot tea has more thermal energy
in tea pot than hot tea in cup
because it has more particles.
Measuring Temperature
 A thermometer measures air
temperature.
 (thin glass tube with a bulb at
one end that contains liquid or
mercury)
 When air temp increases, the
liquid in bulb increases and
expands and rises
Temperature Scales
 Temperature is measured in units
called degrees
 Common scales Celsius
freezing point –0oC
boiling point – 100oC
 Fahrenheit
freezing point –32oF
boiling point – 212oF
How is heat transferred?
 Radiation-direct transfer of
energy by electromagnetic
 waves (space)
 Conduction- direct transfer
(touching) of heat of one
substance to another.
 Convection-transfer of heat
 by the movement of fluid.
Heating in the Troposphere
 Radiation, Conduction, Convection
Currents heat troposphere
 Radiation- sun heats earth’s surface
 Conduction- heat touches the ground
and warms it
 Convection Currents-Upward
movement of warm air and downward
movement of cool air.
 What does this look like?
http://www.classzone.com/books/earth_scienc
e/terc/content/visualizations/es1903/es1903pa
ge01.cfm?chapter_no=visualization
 Land and sea breeze
 http://www.hainesport.k12.nj.us/educatio
n/sctemp/6d5952d0214ba64abedf609ff1
a9d0c0/1256043301/arv3Sea-nLandBreezeImage4wkst.pdf
Next- in your notebook,
diagram the following:
 The heating of the
troposphere.
 Label Radiation, Conduction,
Convection Currents.
 Include Arrows and Direction.
Title: Heat Transfer Lab (40-41)
 Purpose:
 Research: Statement on heating
 Hypothesis: Guess on heating and cooling
of sand and water.
 Experiment:
 Include data table
 Summarize what you did.
 Analysis/Conclusion: Answer Questions
in complete sentences.
10-22-08
Ch.2, sect. 3 Wind
Part 1
Key Terms
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Wind
Anemometer
Wind-Chill Factor
Local Winds
Sea Breeze
Land Breeze
Global Winds
Coriolis Effect
Latitude
Jet Stream
Wind Horizontal movement of air
from an area of high
pressure to an area of low
pressure.
 Caused by differences in air
pressure-unequal heating of
the earth’s surface heated
by the sun’s rays.
How does heating impact
pressure?
Measuring Wind
 Winds are described by their
direction and speed
 Name of the wind tells you
where the wind is coming from
 “South wind”-blows from the
south to the north
 “West wind” blows from the
_____ to the_____?
 Wind speed measured by
anemometer-has 3 or 4 cups
that spin on an axel that is
attached to a meter that
shows wind speed.
Wind Chill Factor
 Wind blowing over your skin
removes body heat
 Increased cooling a wind can
cause is the Wind Chill
Factor
Local winds Winds that blow over short
distances-caused by unequal
heating of Earth’s surface
within a small area (these
form when large scale winds
are weak)
 Sea Breezes and
Land Breezes
Sea Breeze
 Happens during the day- it is
a local wind that blows from
the ocean or lake toward the
land.
 How does this happen? Draw
it…
Sea Breeze- Draw it
Land Breeze
 Happens at night- it
is a local wind
that blows from the land to
the ocean or lake.
 How does this happen? Draw it.
Land Breeze-Draw it
10-23-09
Ch.2, sect. 3 Wind
Part 2
(will need red and blue
colored pencils)
Global Winds
 Occurs over large areas.
 Created by unequal heating of
the Earth’s surface by the sun’s
rays.
Global Convection Currents
 Temp between the equator
and poles produce giant
convection currents
 Warm air rises at the
equator- low pressure.
Cold air sinks at the poleshigh pressure
Warm air rises at the equator- low
pressure. Cold air sinks at the poleshigh pressure
Important to note-
 Because the Earth is
rotating, these global
winds do not blow in a
straight line.
What?
 1. Draw/cut circle.
 2. Pressing lightly, try to
draw a straight line from
the center of the circle
while your partner turns
the circle…
 What happens? –
 This effect is called the
Coriolis Effect.
Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis, a
French scientist who described
it in 1835,
Effect of Coriolis Effect on
Global Winds
 Global winds in the northern
hemisphere turn to the
right of it’s path. (deflected to
the right)
 Global winds in the southern
hemisphere turn to the left
of it’s path. (deflected to the left)
Coriolis Effect in Northern and
Southern Hemisphere. Draw it.
 1. Movement of wind without Coriolis
effect (pencil)
 2. Movement of wind with the Coriolis
effect (red and blue pencil)
The Coriolis Effect
Global Wind Belts.
 Doldrums
 Horse Latitudes
 Trade Winds
 Prevailing Westerlies
 Polar Easterlies
 See sheet… let’s look at this.
 *Doldrums-calm areas where warm air
rises. Near the equator. Sun heats
the surface strongly.
 *Horse Latitude-calm areas of falling
air. About 30O north and south of the
equator. Latitude-the distance from
the equator, measured on degrees.
Warm air rises at the equator and
flows north and south. At 30o north
and south, air stops moving towards
poles and sinks.
 *Trade Winds-blows from the horse
latitudes toward the equator. When
the cold air over the horse latitudes
sinks, it produces high pressure
surface winds that blow toward the
equator and away from it. Between
30O north and south latitudes and the
equator.
 *Prevailing Westerlies-blows away
from the horse latitudes. In the midlatitudes. Between 30O and 60O north
and south, winds that are blow towards
the poles are turned east by the
Coriolis effect.
 *Polar Easterlies-blows cold air away
from the poles. Cold air near the poles
sink and flow back to the lower
latitudes. Coriolis effect shifts the
polar winds to the west. Polar
easterlies meet the prevailing
westerlies at about 60o north and
south latitudes.
 Jet Streams-bands of high speed
winds about 10 kilometers above
Earth’s surface.
Global Wind Sheet – fill in.
attach to NB
10/30-31/08
Ch.2, sect. 4 Water in
the Atmosphere
Key Terms
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
Water cycle
Humidity
Psychrometer
Dew point
Evaporation
Relative humidity
Condensations
Cumulus
Cirrus
Stratus
Water cycle Movement of water between the
atmosphere and the Earth’s
surface.
 Evaporation-the process by which
water molecules in liquid water
escape into the air.
Water Cycle Review http://livingclassrooms.org/slurrp/wat
ercycle.html
Know this…
 Air has water vapor in itmeasurement of it is called
“Humidity”
 Air’s ability to hold water
depends on its
temperature.
 Warm air can hold more
water vapor than cool air.
How Clouds Form
 1. Warm, moist air rises from
the surface. As air rises, it
cools.
 2. At a certain height, air cools
to the dew point and
condensation begins.
 3. Water vapor condenses on tiny
particles in the air, forming a
cloud.
What would this look like?
 Draw it.
 Step 1.
 Step 2.
 Step 3
Insert picture on how
clouds form
Role of Cooling
 As air cools, the amount of water vapor it
can hold decreases, so the water vapor
condenses into tiny droplets of water or ice
crystals.
 Temperature that condensation begins is
called Dew Point.
 Dew point above freezing-water droplets
 Dew point below freezing-ice crystals
Role of Particles
 Particles, such as salt
crystals, dust from soil, and
smoke are needed for the
water vapor to condense on.
Cloud in a Bottle Demo
 http://www.chias.org/www/edu/activiti
es/activity1/activity1.html
 http://questgarden.com/46/09/1/0701
30184558/files/Making_Your_Own_Cl
oud.doc
Types of Clouds
 Clouds are classified by
shape: cirrus, cumulus,
and stratus.
 Clouds are classified by
their altitude.
Cirrus Clouds
 Wispy, feathery clouds
form at high levels above 6
km where the
temperatures are very low.
 Cirrocumulus are clouds
that indicate a storm its
way.
Cumulus Clouds-
 Looks like fluffy piles of
cotton.
 “Cumulus” means heap or
“mass”
 Form less than 2 km above
ground and may grow in size
and height as they extend
upwards as much as 18 km.
Stratus Clouds
 Clouds that form in flat
layers.
 Usually cover most or part of
the sky.
 May produce rain, drizzle, or
snow- they are then called
Nimbostratus clouds.
 “Nimbus” means rain.
Altocumulus and Altostratus
Clouds
 “Alto” means high- but
these are middle-level
clouds that are higher than
regular cumulus and stratus
clouds but lower than cirrus
and other high clouds.
Fog
 Clouds that forms near the
ground.
 Forms when ground cools at
night after a warm, humid
day.
Fog Demo
 http://www.youthonline.ca/crafts/mak
efog.shtml
10/31/09
Ch.2, sect. 5
Precipitation
Key Terms
 Precipitation
 Rain
 Sleet
 Freezing Rain
 Snow
 Hail
Precipitation
 Any form of water that falls
from clouds and reaches
Earth’s surface
 Not all clouds produce
precipitation
 Cloud droplets or ice crystals
must be heavy enough to fall
through air.
Types of Precipitation
 Rain
 Sleet
 Freezing Rain
 Snow
 Hail
Rain Drops of water that are at
least 0.5 mm in diameter.
Sleet
 Occurs when rain drops fall
through a layer of air that
is below freezing and rain
drops freeze into particles
of ice.
 Ice crystals that are 5 mm
in diameter are called
sleet.
Freezing Rain
 Rain drops that freeze
when they touch a cold
surface.
Snow-
 Water vapor in a cloud is
converted into ice
crystals called snow
flakes.
Hail Round pellets of ice larger than 5 mm
in diameter.
 Start as small pellets inside of
cumulonimbus clouds and they grow
larger as they are tossed up and
down.
 When they become heavy, they fall to
the ground.
Modifying Precipitation
 Droughts-long periods of unusually low
precipitation
 Cloud Seeding- tiny crystals of silver iodide
and dry ice (solid carbon dioxide) are
sprinkled into clouds from airplanes.

http://video.google.com/videosearch?q=cloud%20seeding&safe=active#
Measuring Precipitation
 Snowfall Measurements- using a
measuring stick or by melting collected
snow and measuring the depth of the
water it produces.
 Rain Measurements- using a rain gaugean open ended can or tube that collects
rainfall.
Ch. 3. Weather Patterns
Key Terms

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Air Mass
Tropical
Polar
Maritime
Continental
Front
Occluded
Cyclone
Anticyclone
Air Mass
 huge body of air that has similar
temperature, humidity, and air
pressure at any given height
Types of Air Masses
 Tropical-warm air masses that form in
the tropics and have low air pressure
 Polar-cold air masses with high air
pressure that form north of 50° north
latitude and south of 50° south latitude
Types of Air Masses
 Maritime-air masses that form over
oceans
 Continental-air masses that form over
land
Types of Air Masses
 Maritime Tropical-warm, humid air
masses that form over tropical oceans
 Maritime Polar-cool, humid air masses
that form over the icy North Pacific
and North Atlantic oceans
Types of Air Masses
 Continental Tropical-hot, dry air masses
that form mostly in summer over dry
areas of the Southwest and northern
Mexico
 Continental Polar-large continental polar
air masses that form over central and
northern Canada and Alaska
How Air Masses Move:
 Prevailing Westerlies-the major wind
belts over the continental United
States, generally push air masses from
west to east
 Jet Streams-bands of high-speed
winds about 10 kilometers above
Earth’s surface
 Front-the boundary where unlike air
masses meet but do not mix
Types of Fronts
 Cold Fronts-a fast moving cold air mass
overtakes a warm air mass
 Warm Front-A warm air mass overtakes
a slow moving cold air mass
 Stationary front-cold and warm air masses meet,
but neither can move the other
 Occluded front-a warm air mass is caught
between two cooler air masses
 Occluded-when the warm air mass is cut off
Cyclones and Anticyclones
 Cyclone- a swirling center of low air
pressure
 Anticyclones-high-pressure centers of
dry air
 http://video.google.com/videosearch?q=a
ir+mass+and+fronts&emb=0&aq=3&oq=
air+mass&safe=active#q=Tornado&view=
2&emb=0
11-23-09
Ch 4, sect. 1
What Causes Climate?
Key Terms

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Climate
Microclimate
Tropical Zone
Polar Zone
Temperate Zone
Marine climate
Continental Climate
Windward
Leeward
Monsoon
Climate
 The average temperature,
precipitation, winds, and clouds in
an area.
 Scientists use two main factors
to describe the climate of a
region -precipitation and
temperature.
Factors Affecting
Temperature
 Latitude
 Altitude
 Distance from large bodies of water,
ocean currents.
Latitude
 Climates near the equator are warmer
than areas further from the equator
because the sun’s rays hit Earth’s
surface more directly.
 Over the poles, same amount of solar
radiation is spread over a large area
bringing less warmth.
Earths 3 Temperature Zones
 Tropical Zones-near the equator. Between 23.5
north and south of the equator.
 Polar Zones- extend from 66.5 to 90 north and
south latitudes.
 Temperate Zones- between tropical and polar
zones. In the summer rays strike temperate
zones more directly. In the winter, rays strike at a
lower angle.
Altitude
 In the troposphere, temperature
decreases about 6.5 Celsius degrees for
every 1 kilometer increase in altitude.
Therefore, you should be able to explain why
Mt. Kilimanjaro, which is located in Africa
has a cool climate even though it is located
at low latitudes.
Distances from Large Bodies of Water
 Oceans or large bodies of water
affect temperatures- they can
greatly moderate or make less
extreme.
 Why?
Distances from Large Bodies of
Water
 Oceans or large bodies of water affect
temperatures- they can greatly
moderate or make less extreme.
 Why?-water heats and cools more
slowly than land, therefore winds
prevent extremes of hot and cold in
coastal regions.
Distances from Large Bodies of Water
 Much of West Coasts of North America, South
America and Europe have mild Marine climates with
mild winters and cool summers.
 Centers of North America, Asia, most of Canada
and Russia are too far inland to be warmed or
cooled by the ocean. -These experience Continental
climates with more extreme temperate than marine
climates. Winters are cold, while summers are
warm or hot.
Ocean Currents
Marine Climates are influence with the ocean
currents:
• warm ocean currents move from tropics to
the poles.
• warm ocean warms the air above it and the
warm air moves over the land.
• cold currents move from poles to the
equator. Cold currents bring cool air.
Ocean Current Pause

Ocean of Plastic

http://video.google.com/videosearch?q=texas+sized+trash+in+ocean&ww
w_google_domain=www.google.com&emb=0&aq=2m&oq=trash+in+ocea
n&safe=active#q=trash+in+ocean&view=2&emb=0&safe=active&start=30
&qvid=Ocean&vid=7273400233017880628
Green Chemistry and Ocean Trash


http://video.google.com/videosearch?q=texas+sized+trash+in+ocean&ww
w_google_domain=www.google.com&emb=0&aq=2m&oq=trash+in+ocea
n&safe=active#q=trash+in+ocean&view=2&emb=0&qvid=trash+in+ocean
&vid=-645736240970897881


Ocean Current Career
http://www.diveintoyourimagination.com/blogsection/
Factors Affecting Precipitation
 The main factors that affect
precipitation are prevailing
winds, the presence of
mountains, and seasonal winds.
Prevailing Winds
 Weather patterns depend on movement of
huge cold/warm/ dry/moist air masses.
 Amount of water vapor in the air mass
influences how much rain or snow will fall.
 Winds that blow inland from oceans carry
more water vapor than winds that blow
from over land. And water vapor brings
precipitation.
Mountain Ranges
 A mountain range in the path of
prevailing winds can influence
where precipitation forms.
 When humid air blows from ocean
to mountain, air rises, cools,
water vapor condenses, forming
clouds and rain or snow falls.
This is the windward side.
What does “windward” look
like? Draw it.
Mountain Ranges
 By the time the air has
moved over the mountains,
it has lost water vapor and
is now cool and dry. This is
the leeward side of the
mountain-downwind. Little
precipitation falls here.
What does “leeward” look
like? Draw it
Seasonal Winds
 Similar to land breezes and
sea breezes but occur over
wider areas.
 Sea and land breezes over
large region that change
direction with the seasons are
called monsoons.
Monsoon summer in South and Southeast Asia- big
“sea breeze”
 Sea breeze blows steadily inland from
ocean all summer.
 Air blowing in is warm and humid.
 Humid air rises over the land and cools
causing the water vapor to condense into
clouds, producing heavy rains.
Seasons
 Winter - big “land breeze”
 Land cools and becomes colder
than ocean, “land breeze” blows
steadily from the land to the
ocean and these winds carry
little moisture.
 **Regions affected by monsoons
receive little rain in the winter.
Video- Career in Ocean
Studies???
 http://www.diveintoyourimagination.com/b
logsection/

Ocean of Plastic

http://video.google.com/videosearch?q=texas+sized+trash+in+ocean&ww
w_google_domain=www.google.com&emb=0&aq=2m&oq=trash+in+ocea
n&safe=active#q=trash+in+ocean&view=2&emb=0&safe=active&start=30
&qvid=Ocean&vid=7273400233017880628
Green Chemistry and Ocean Trash


http://video.google.com/videosearch?q=texas+sized+trash+in+ocean&ww
w_google_domain=www.google.com&emb=0&aq=2m&oq=trash+in+ocea
n&safe=active#q=trash+in+ocean&view=2&emb=0&qvid=trash+in+ocean
&vid=-645736240970897881


Ocean Current Career
http://www.diveintoyourimagination.com/blogsection/
11-30-09
Ch 4, sect. 2
Climate Regions
Key Terms
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Rain Forest
Desert
Humid Subtropical
Tundra
Savanna
Steppe
Subarctic
Permafrost
 Scientists classify climates according
to two major factors: temperature and
precipitation.
 There are six main climate regions:
tropical, rainy, dry, temperate marine,
temperate continental, polar, and
highlands.
Tropical Rainy
 Tropical Wet-Always hot and humid,
with heavy rainfall (at least 6
centimeters per month)
 Tropical Wet and Dry-Always hot;
alternating wet and dry seasons; heavy
rainfall in the wet season
Dry Climates
 Semiarid-Dry but receives about 25 to
50 centimeters of precipitation per
year
 Arid-Desert with little precipitation,
usually less than 25 centimenters per
year
Temperate Marine Climate
 Marine west coast-mild winters and
cool summers, moderate
precipitation all year
 Mediterranean-warm, dry summers
and rainy winters
 Humid Subtropical-hot summers and
cool winters
Temperate Continental
 Humid Continental-hot, humid summers
with moderate precipitation all year
round
 Subarctic-short, cool summers and
long, cold winters; light precipitation,
mainly in the summer
Polar Climates
 Ice Cap-Always cold, average
temperature at or below 0 degrees
Celsius
 Tundra-Always cold with a short, cool
summer-warmest temperature about
10 degrees Celsius
Highlands
 Generally cooler and wetter than
nearby lowlands; temperature
decreasing with altitude.
Focus on the climates-With your partner, you
will RESEARCH the climate zones (in your notes)
and find the following:
 1. A picture of a city or town or area in that climate
zone. Include the name of the
city/town/area/country/state, and population. (you may
use pgs 120-121 to help you with cities/towns).
 2. Write short description of how the people “make
their living”/live in these climate zones.
 3. Explain: How does their way of “making a living” make
sense to the climate zone that they live in.
 Attach # 1,2, and 3 to your notes.
12-11-09
Ch 4, sect. 3
Long-Term Changes in
Climate
Key Terms
 Ice Age
 Sunspot
Studying Climate Change
 Scientists follow this principle
when studying ancient climates: If
plants or animals today need
certain conditions to live, then
similar plants and animals in the
past also required those
conditions.
Pollen
 Each plant has a particular
type of pollen. Scientists can
drill into the bottom of lakes
and find pollen that was
present years ago and they
can see the type of climate
that allowed the plant to
grow.
Tree Rings
 Layers showing the tree’s growth.
 In cool climates-thickness of tree
rings depends on length of warm
growing season.
 In dry climates-thickness of tree ring
depends on amount of rainfall.
 From data, scientists can tell years of
warm or cool, wet or dry.
 Activity on tree rings after notes.
Ice Ages
 In earth’s history, climates have
gradually changed. There have
been periods of warm and cold.
 Cold periods- Ice Ages or “glacial
episodes”
 During Ice Age, huge sheets of
glaciers covered large parts of
Earth’s surface.
Ice Age
 During the ice age, much of the
water was frozen as ice so the
average sea level was lower than it
is today.
Possible explanations for the causes
of Climate Change- Draw this
 # 1. Earth’s Position-earth’s tilt and
orbit around the sun change over time.
Possible explanations for the causes
of Climate Change. Draw this
 # 2. Solar Energy- changes in number
of sun spots on the sun. Sun produced
more energy with sun spots.
Possible explanations for the causes
of Climate Change. Draw this.
 # 3. Volcanic Activity- volcanic
eruptions releasing huge amounts of
gas into the atmosphere which could
filter incoming solar radiation and
lower temperatures.
Movement of Continents
 Continents have not always been
located where they are now.
 At one time, most of the land was
part of a single continent called
Pangaea-and Pangaea broke apart and
continents moved to different
latitudes on the earth.
 More on Pangaea to come in
next unit.
12-15-09
Ch 4, sect. 4
Global Changes in the
Atmosphere
Key Terms
 El Nino
 La Nina
 Global Warming
 Greenhouse Gas
 Chlorofluorocarbon
Short Term Climate Change
 El Nino and La Nina are short
term changes in the tropical
Pacific Ocean and are caused
by changes in ocean surface
currents and prevailing winds.
 El Nino-Warm water event
 La Nina-Cold water event
El Nino
 Warm water event that begins when an
unusual pattern of winds forms over the
western Pacific.
 Warm water moves eastward to South
American coast.
 Disrupts cold ocean current-brings sever
conditions- droughts or heavy rains in
different parts of the world
La Nina
 Cold water event
 When surface waters are colder than normal.
 Brings colder winters and greater precipitation to the Pacific
Northwest and north central United States.
 Also brings greater hurricane activity in western Atlantic.

Short Video- Weather Patterns vs Global Warming. El Niño connection.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5uk9nwtAOio&feature=related


La Nina
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U7lw2RsxhEs&feature=related
Changing levels of CO2
 Scientists believe caused by
increased human activities,
such as the burning of wood,
coal, oil and natural activities
have led to global warming.
Climate Variation Hypothesis
 Some scientists think
global warming is due to
changes in energy of the
sun producing warmer and
cooler climates.
Possible Effects of Global Warming
 Positive- places too cold could
become farmland.
 Less positive-current farmlands
could cause water to evaporate
making them to dry for farming.
Possible Effects of Global Warming


Review of Global Warming:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_XDhuDEWSu4&feature=related
 Increased water temperature could
increase strength of hurricanes.
 Ice could melt causing sea levels to
rise flooding low lying coastal areas.
Ozone Depletion
 Caused by chlorofluorocarbons, CFC’s
which are used in air conditioners and
refrigerators, cleaners, electronic
parts, chemical in aerosol cans.
 Results in decreased ozone and
increase amount of ultraviolet
radiation that reaches the earth.
Next El Nino and La Nina reading-complete
with your partners.
1-4-10
Ch 1, sect. 1
Earth’s Interior
The Science of Geology
 Geologists are scientists who study the
forces that create Earth’s features
and search for clues about earth’s
history. They study the chemical and
physical characteristics of rock.
Studying Surface Changes:
 Geologists divide the forces that change the
surface of the earth into two groups:
 →Constructive forces: shape the surface by
building up mountains and landmasses.
 →Destructive forces: are those that slowly wear
away mountains and, eventually, every other feature
on the surface.
 In this picture, what formation
shows evidence of the
constructive force?
destructive force?
 History- Two hundred years ago, geologists knew:
 that the Earth is a sphere with a radius at the
equator more that 6,000 kilometers
 there are seven great landmasses, called
continents, surrounded by oceans.
 that the continents are made up of layers of
rock.
But there were unanswered
questions:
 How old is the earth?
 How has the Earth’s surface changed over
time?
 Why are there oceans, and how did they
form?
Finding Indirect Evidence:
 Geologists can not observe Earth’s interior
directly. They rely on indirect methods
instead…
 For example- when earthquakes occur, they produce
seismic waves. Geologists record the seismic
waves to study how they travel through the earth.
A Journey to the Center of the Earth
 Temperature: Increases as the depth increases
(towards the center of the earth).
 Pressure: Increases as the depth increases
(towards the center of the earth).
Three main layers make up the Earth’s interior: the
crust, the mantle, and the core. Each layer has its own
conditions and materials.
 The Crust:
 - the layer of rock that forms Earth’s outer skin.
 - thinnest layer 5 to 40 kilometers thick.
 - crust beneath the ocean is basalt. Basalt is
a dark, dense rock with a fine texture
 - crust beneath the continents is granite.
Granite has larger crystals than basalt and is
not as dense*. (fix typo)
The Mantle:
 -at a depth between 5 to 50 kilometers beneath
the surface.
 -The uppermost part of the mantle and the crust
together is called the lithosphere. Lithos means
“stone”. It is brittle.
 -the lower most part of the mantle is called the
asthenosphere. Asthenes mean “weak.” It is soft
and flows slowly
The Core:
 -Earth’s core consists of two parts.
The outer core and the inner core.
 -the outer core is a layer of molten
metal that surrounds the inner core.
 -the inner core is a dense ball of solid
metal.
Earth’s Magnetic Field:
 Currents in the liquid outer core force
the solid inner core to spin. The inner
core spins faster than the outer core.
1-6-10
Chapter 1- Plate Tectonics
Section 2-Convection Currents
 The movement of energy from a
warmer object to a cooler object is
called heat transfer.
How is heat transferred?
 Radiation-direct transfer of
energy by electromagnetic
 waves (space)
 Conduction- direct transfer
(touching) of heat of one
substance to another.
 Convection-transfer of heat
 by the movement of fluid.
Convection current is the flow that
transfers heat within in a fluid.
The heating a cooling of the fluid, changes in
the fluid’s density, and the force of gravity
combine to set convection currents in motion.
 Convection in Earth’s Mantle
 Heat from Earth’s mantle and core
causes convection current to form in
the asthenosphere.
1-11-10
Chapter 1-Plate Tectonics
Section 3-Drifting Continents
 If you were to look at a modern world
map, you would notice how the coasts
of Africa and South American look as
though they could fit together like
jigsaw puzzle pieces.
Theory of Continental Drift
 Wegener’s hypothesis was that all the
continents had once been joined
together in a single land mass and
have since drifted apart.
 Wegener named this super continent
Pangaea, meaning “all lands.”
 According to Wegener, Pangaea existed
about 300 million years ago. Over tens of
millions of years, Pangaea began to break
apart and slowly move over toward their
present day locations, becoming the
continents that they are today.
 *Continental Drift- Wegener’s idea that the
continents slowly moved over Earth’s
surface.
 Wegener gathered evidence from different
scientific fields to support his ideas about
continental drift.
 He studied landforms, fossils, and evidence
that showed how the Earth’s climate had
changed over many millions of years.
 In 1915, he published his evidence in a book
called The Origin of Continents and Oceans.
Wegener’s Evidence for Continental Drift
 Evidence from Landforms: Mountain ranges
and other features on the continents
provided evidence for continental drift.
 Example- the mountain ranges in running
east to west in South Africa line up with a
mountain range in Argentina. European coal
fields match up with similar coal fields in
North America.
 Evidence from Fossils: A fossil is any trace
of an ancient organism that has been
preserved in rock.
 *Example-Glossopteris, a fern like plant that
flourished 250 million years ago, have been
found in rocks in Africa, South America,
Australia, India, and Antarctica. These
seeds were very large, so they could not
have been carried by the wind, and they
were to fragile to have survived a trip by
ocean waves.
 Evidence from Climate: Wegener used
evidence of climate change to support his
theory.
 *Example. Spitsbergen lies in the Arctic
Ocean north or Norway. It currently has a
harsh cool climate, but fossils of tropical
plants are found on Spitsbergen. In mild
South Africa of today, deep scratches in
rocks showed that continental glaciers once
covered South Africa. According to
Wegener, Earth’s climate has not changed.
Instead, the positions of the continents
have changed.
Scientists Reject Wegener’s Theory.
 Wegner could not provide a
satisfactory explanation for the force
that pushes or pulls the continents.
Because Wegener could not identify
the cause of continental drift, most
geologists rejected his idea.
 In the early 1900’s, many geologists
thought that the Earth was slowly
cooling and shrinking. According to
this theory, mountains formed when
the crust wrinkled like the skin of a
dried up apple.
 Wegener said that if this theory was
correct, then mountains should be
found all over Earth’s surface- but
mountains usually occur in narrow
bands along the edges of continents.
1–13-10
Chapter 1-Plate Tectonics
Section 4-Sea Floor Spreading
Mapping the Mid-Ocean Ridge
 The East Pacific Rise is one part of the mid ocean ridge, the
longest chain of mountains in the world. In the mid 1900s,
scientists mapped the mid-ocean ridge using sonar.
 Sonar is a device that bounces sound waves off under water
objects and then records the echoes of these sound waves.
 Most of the mountains in the mid ocean ridge lie hidden under
meters of water; however, there are places where the ridge
pokes above the surface-the island part of Iceland.
Evidence for Sea Floor Spreading
 Harry Hess studied the mid ocean ridge.
 In 1960, Hess suggested that the ocean
floors move like conveyor belts, carrying the
continents along with them. This movement
begins at the mid ocean ridge and forms
cracks in the oceanic crust.
 At the mid-ocean ridge, molten
material rises from the mantle and
erupts. The molten material then
spreads out, pushing older rock to both
sides of the ridge.
 Hess called this process sea floor
spreading.
Picture of Sea Floor Spreading
Evidence to support Sea Floor Spreading
 Evidence from Molten Material
 In the 1960’s scientist found evidence that new
material is erupting along the mid-ocean ridge. On
the ocean floor, scientists saw strange rocks that
looked like toothpaste squeezed from a tube. These
rocks can only form when molten material hardens
quickly erupts under the water.
Evidence from Magnetic Stripes
 When scientists studied patterns in the
ocean floor, they found more support for
the sea-floor spreading. Evidence shows
that the Earth’s magnetic poles have
reversed themselves. This last happened in
780,000 years ago. Scientist discovered
that rock that makes up the ocean floor lied
in a pattern of magnetized “stripes.”
Evidence from Drilling Samples
 The final proof of sea floor spreading.
Glomar Challenger, a drilling ship built in
1968. Samples from the floor were brought
up from the pipes and scientists determine
the age of the rocks in the samples. They
found that the further away from the ridge
are the older and the ones closest to the
center were the youngest.
Subduction at Deep-Ocean Trenches
 How can the ocean floor keeping getting wider and
wider? The ocean floor generally does not just keep
spreading.
 The ocean floor plunges into deep-ocean trenches
forms where the oceanic crust bends downward.
 Subduction- where there are deep –ocean trenches,
subduction is the process by which the ocean floor
sinks beneath a deep-ocean trench and back into the
mantle.
 Convection currents under the lithosphere push new
crust that forms at the mid ocean ridge away from
the ridges and toward a deep-ocean trench.
 At deep-ocean trenches, subduction allows part of
the ocean floor to sink back into the mantle, over
tens of millions of years.
Subduction and Earth’s Oceans:
 The process of subduction and sea floor
spreading can change the size and shape of
the oceans.
 *Subduction in the Pacific Ocean: The
vast Pacific Ocean covers almost 1/3 of the
planet. Yet it is still shrinking because a
deep ocean trench can swallow more oceanic
crust that the mid-ocean ridge can produce.
 *Subduction in the Atlantic Ocean:
The Atlantic Ocean is expanding. It
has only a few short trenches so the
spreading ocean floor has virtually
nowhere to go.
1–19-10
Chapter 1-Plate Tectonics
Section 5- Plate Tectonics
A Theory of Plate Motion
 Canadian scientist J. Tuzo Wilson observed
that there are cracks in the continents
similar to those in the ocean floor. In 1965,
Wilson proposed that the lithosphere is
broken into separate pieces called plates.
.
The theory of plate tectonics-
 *The plates of the lithosphere float on
top of the asthensosphere.
 *Convection plates rise in the
asthenosphere and spread out beneath
the lithosphere causing the movement
of Earth’s plates
Plate Boundaries:
 Edges of different pieces of the lithosphere
meet at lines called plate boundaries.
 Faults- are breaks in the earth’s crust
where rocks have slipped passed each along
the boundaries.
Transform Boundaries Crust is neither created nor destroyed. A
place where two plates slip past each other,
moving in opposite directions.
Divergent Boundaries
 The place where two plates move apart.
 -Most divergent boundaries occur at the mid ocean
ridge as sea floor spreading occurs.
 -Divergent boundaries also occur on land-called a
rift valley. For example, the Great Rift Valley in
East Africa.
Convergent Boundaries The place where two plates come together, or
converge.
 When two plates converge, the result is called a
collision.
 When two plates collide, the density of the plates
determines which one comes out on top.
 Oceanic crust (made mostly out of basalt) is
denser than Continental crust (made mostly out of
granite).
The Continents Slow Dance
 Plates move at slow rates- from one to ten
centimeters per year.
http://oceansjsu.com/105d/exped_shakin/3.html
Ch 2, sect. 1
Earth’s Crust in Motion
Stress in the Crust
 An earthquake is the shaking and
trembling that results from the
movement of rock beneath earth’s
surface.
 The movement of Earth’s plates create
powerful forces that squeeze or pull
the rock in the crust- these are
examples of stress.
Stress-a force that acts on a rock to
change its shape or volume.
 Types of stress: Shearing, Tension,
and Compression
 Shearing: Stress that pushes a mass of
rock in two opposite directions.
 Tension: Stress that pulls on the crust,
stretching rock so that it becomes
thinner in the middle.
 Compression: Stress that squeezes rock
until it folds or breaks.
 Any change in the volume or shape of
Earth’s crust is called deformation.
Picture of 3 types of stress
Kinds of Faults
 A fault is a break in the Earth’s crust
where slabs of crust slip past each
other.
 Faults usually occurs along plate
boundaries, where the forces of plate
motion compress, pull, or shear the
crust so much that the crust breaks.
 Strike-Slip Faults- created by
shearing. The rocks on either side of
the fault slip past each other side
ways with little up or down motion. A
strike slip fault that forms the
boundary between two plates is called
a transform boundary.
 Normal faults- tension forces in the
crust cause normal faults. In a normal
fault, the fault is at an angle, so one
block of rock lies above the fault while
the other block lies below the fault.
 Hanging wall-
 Footwall-
 When movement occurs along a normal
fault, the hanging wall slips downward.
 Reverse Faults- Compression forces
produce reverse faults.
 The fault has the same structure as a
normal fault, but the blocks move in opposite
direction.
 Skipping Friction Along Faults and Mountain
Building
Normal Fault picture
Reverse Fault Picture
Ch 2, sect. 2
Measuring Earthquakes
 An earthquake starts at one particular
point. The focus is the point beneath
Earth’s surface where the rock that is
under the stress breaks, triggering an
earthquake. The point on the surface
directly
 Seismic Waves are vibrations that
travel through Earth carrying energy
released during an earthquake. The
seismic waves move like ripples in a
pond. Seismic waves carry the energy
of an earthquake away from the focus,
through Earth’s interior, and across
the surface.
Three categories of seismic waves: P waves, S
waves, Surface waves.
 P waves Primary waves.
 The first to arrive.
 Earthquake waves that compress and
expand the ground like an accordion.
 Travels through solids and liquids
 S waves Secondary waves
 Earthquake waves that vibrate side to
side as well as up and down
 When they reach the surface, they shake
structures violently.
 Travels through solids not liquids
 Surface Waves
 When P and S waves reach the surface,
some are transformed into surface waves.
 These move more slowly than P and S
waves
 These produce severe ground movements.
Measuring Earthquakes
 Three ways of measuring
earthquakes: Mercalli scale, the
Richer scale, the moment magnitude
scale.
 Mercalli scale-developed in the early
20th century. Developed to rate
earthquakes according to their
intensity.
 Richter scale-rating the size of
seismic waves as measured by a
seismograph. The Richter scale
provides an accurate measure for
small, nearby earthquakes. But this
scale does not work well for large or
distant earthquakes.
 Moment Magnitude Scale-used today.
The scale can be used to rate
earthquakes of all sizes, near or far.
 Earthquakes with a magnitude below 5.0
on the moment magnitude scale are small
and cause little damage.
 Earthquakes with a magnitude above 5.0
can produce great destruction.
 Earthquakes with a magnitude of 6.0
release 32 times as much energy as a
magnitude 5.0 quake, and as nearly 1,000
times as much as a magnitude 4.0 quake.
Moment Magnitude
 Is the measure of total energy released by
an earthquake. Moment magnitude is the
measurement and term generally prefered
by scientists and seismologists to the
Richter scale because moment magnitude is
more precise.
 Moment Magnitude is not based on
instrumental recordings of a quake, but on
the area of the fault that ruptured in the
quake.
 Moment Magnitude is calculated in part by
multiplying the area of the fault's rupture
surface by the distance the earth moves
along the fault
Richter and Moment
Magnitude Scale
 http://quake.ualr.edu/public/moment.htm
Locating the Epicenter
 Geologists use seismic waves to locate
an earthquake’s epicenter. Seismic
waves travel at different speeds. P
waves arrive first at a seismograph,
with S waves following close behind.
 To tell how far the epicenter is from the
seismograph, scientists measure the
difference between the P waves and the S
waves. The farther away an earthquake
is, the greater the time difference
between the arrival of the P waves and S
waves.
 Geologists draw at least three circles
using data from different seismographs
set up at stations all over the world.
Ch 2, sect. 3
Earthquake Hazards and Safety
How Earthquakes Cause Damage
 When a major earthquake strikes, it
can cause great damage. The severe
shaking produced by seismic waves can
damage or destroy buildings and
bridges, topple utility poles, and
fracture gas and water mains.
 Local Soil Conditions- When seismic
waves move from hard, dense rock to
loosely packed soil, they transmit their
energy to the soil causing the soil to shake
more violently than its surroundings.
 Liquefaction- Occurs when earthquake’s
violent shaking suddenly turns loose, soft
soil into liquid mud.
 Aftershocks – an earthquake that
occurs after a larger earthquake in the
same area. Aftershocks may strike
hours, days, or even months later.
 Tsunamis-When an earthquake jolts the
ocean floor, plate movement causes the
ocean floor to rise slightly and push water
out of its way. If the earthquake is strong
enough, the water displaced by the quake
forms large waves, called Tsunamis.
 Choice of Location- The location of
the building affects the type of
damage it may suffer during an
earthquake.
 Steep slopes pose the danger of
landslides
 Filled land can shake violently
Making Buildings Safer
 To reduce damage, new buildings must
be made stronger and more flexible.
Older buildings must be modified to
withstand stronger quakes.
Construction Methods The way a building is constructed
determines whether it can withstand
an earthquake. During an earthquake,
brick buildings as well as some wood
frame buildings may collapse if their
walls have not been reinforced.
 Base-isolated buildings- a building
designed to reduce the amount of
energy that reaches a building
Protecting Yourself during an Earthquake The main danger is from falling objects and
flying glass.
 The best way to protect yourself is to drop,
cover, and hold. (crouch beneath a sturdy table
or desk and hold on to it so it doesn’t jiggle away
during the shaking.
 If no desk is available, crouch against an inner
wall, away from the outside of a building, and
cover your head and neck with your arms.
 If you are outdoors, move to an open area
such as a playground. Avoid power lines,
trees, and buildings, especially ones with
brick walls or chimneys.
 Sit down to avoid being thrown.
 After a major earthquake, water and
power supplies may fail, food stores may
be closed, and travel may be difficult.
Ch 2, sect. 1
Earth’s Crust in Motion
Stress in the Crust
 An earthquake is the shaking and
trembling that results from the
movement of rock beneath earth’s
surface.
 The movement of Earth’s plates create
powerful forces that squeeze or pull
the rock in the crust- these are
examples of stress.
Stress-a force that acts on a rock to
change its shape or volume.
 Types of stress: Shearing, Tension,
and Compression
 Shearing: Stress that pushes a mass of
rock in two opposite directions.
 Tension: Stress that pulls on the crust,
stretching rock so that it becomes
thinner in the middle.
 Compression: Stress that squeezes rock
until it folds or breaks.
 Any change in the volume or shape of
Earth’s crust is called deformation.
Kinds of Faults
 A fault is a break in the Earth’s crust
where slabs of crust slip past each
other. Faults usually occurs along plate
boundaries, where the forces of plate
motion compress, pull, or shear the
crust so much that the crust breaks.
 Strike-Slip Faults- created by
shearing. The rocks on either side of
the fault slip past each other side
ways with little up or down motion. A
strike slip fault that forms the
boundary between two plates is called
a transform boundary.
 Normal faults- tension forces in the
crust cause normal faults. In a normal
fault, the fault is at an angle, so one
block of rock lies above the fault while
the other block lies below the fault.
 Hanging wall-
 Footwall-
 When movement occurs along a normal
fault, the hanging wall slips downward.
 Reverse Faults- Compression forces
produce reverse faults. The fault has the
same structure as a normal fault, but the
blocks move in opposite direction.
 Skipping Friction Along Faults and Mountain
Building
Normal Fault picture
Reverse Fault Picture
Ch 2, sect. 2
Measuring Earthquakes
 An earthquake starts at one particular point.
The focus is the point beneath Earth’s
surface where the rock that is under the
stress breaks, triggering an earthquake.
The point on the surface directly
 Seismic Waves are vibrations that travel
through Earth carrying energy released
during an earthquake. The seismic waves
move like ripples in a pond. Seismic waves
carry the energy of an earthquake away
from the focus, through Earth’s interior, and
across the surface.
Three categories of seismic waves: P waves, S
waves, Surface waves.
 P waves-
 Primary waves.
 The first to arrive.
 Earthquake waves that compress and expand the ground
like an accordion.
 Travels through solids and liquids
 S waves-
 Secondary waves
 Earthquake waves that vibrate side to side as well as up
and down
 When they reach the surface, they shake structures
violently.
 Travels through solids not liquids
 Surface Waves
 When P and S waves reach the surface,
some are transformed into surface waves.
 These move more slowly than P and S
waves
 These produce severe ground movements.
Measuring Earthquakes
 Three ways of measuring
earthquakes: Mercalli scale, the
Richer scale, the moment magnitude
scale.
 Mercalli scale-developed in the early
20th century. Developed to rate
earthquakes according to their
intensity.
 Richter scale-rating the size of
seismic waves as measured by a
seismograph. The Richter scale
provides an accurate measure for
small, nearby earthquakes. But this
scale does not work well for large or
distant earthquakes.
 Moment Magnitude Scale-used today.
The scale can be used to rate
earthquakes of all sizes, near or far.
 Earthquakes with a magnitude below 5.0
on the moment magnitude scale are small
and cause little damage.
 Earthquakes with a magnitude above 5.0
can produce great destruction.
 Earthquakes with a magnitude of 6.0
release 32 times as much energy as a
magnitude 5.0 quake, and as nearly 1,000
times as much as a magnitude 4.0 quake.
Locating the Epicenter
 Geologists use seismic waves to locate an
earthquake’s epicenter. Seismic waves
travel at different speeds. P waves arrive
first at a seismograph, with S waves
following close behind.
 To tell how far the epicenter is from the
seismograph, scientists measure the difference
between the P waves and the S waves. The
farther away an earthquake is, the greater the
time difference between the arrival of the P
waves and S waves.
 Geologists draw at least three circles using data
from different seismographs set up at stations
all over the world.
Ch 2, sect. 3
Earthquake Hazards and Safety
How Earthquakes Cause Damage
 When a major earthquake strikes, it can
cause great damage. The severe shaking
produced by seismic waves can damage or
destroy buildings and bridges, topple utility
poles, and fracture gas and water mains.
 Local Soil Conditions- When seismic waves move
from hard, dense rock to loosely packed soil, they
transmit their energy to the soil causing the soil
to shake more violently than its surroundings.
 Liquefaction- Occurs when earthquake’s violent
shaking suddenly turns loose, soft soil into liquid
mud. Liquefaction is likely to occur when an
earthquake’s violent shaking suddenly turns loose.
 Aftershocks – an earthquake that
occurs after a larger earthquake in the
same area. Aftershocks may strike
hours, days, or even months later.
 Tsunamis-When an earthquake jolts
the ocean floor, plate movement causes
the ocean floor to rise slightly and
push water out of its way. If the
earthquake is strong enough, the water
displaced by the quake forms large
waves, called Tsunamis.
Making Buildings Safer
 To reduce damage, new buildings must be
made stronger and more flexible. Older
buildings must be modified to withstand
stronger quakes.
 Choice of Location- The location of the
building affects the type of damage it may
suffer during an earthquake.
 Steep slopes pose the danger of landslides
 Filled land can shake violently
Construction Methods The way a building is constructed
determines whether it can withstand
an earthquake. During an earthquake,
brick buildings as well as some wood
frame buildings may collapse if their
walls have not been reinforced.
 Base-isolated buildings- a building
designed to reduce the amount of energy
that reduces the amount of energy that
reaches a building
Protecting Yourself during an Earthquake The main danger is from falling objects and flying
glass.
 The best way to protect yourself is to drop, cover, and
hold. (crouch beneath a sturdy table or desk and hold on to
it so it doesn’t jiggle away during the shaking.
 If no desk is available, crouch against an inner wall, away
from the outside of a building, and cover your head and
neck with your arms.
 If you are outdoors, move to an open area such as a
playground. Avoid power lines, trees, and buildings,
especially ones with brick walls or chimneys.
 Sit down to avid being thrown.
 After a major earthquake, water and power supplies may
fail, food stores may be closed, and travel may be difficult.
Ch 2, sect. 4
Section 4 Monitoring Faults
 Story- In the early 1980’s, geologists
predicted that a strong earthquake was
going to occur in Parkfield between 19851993. Geologists waited for the predicted
earthquake, but it never came. Finally,
medium-sized earthquakes rumbled along the
San Andreas fault near Parkfield in 19931994.
 What went wrong?
Geologists don’t know, but they continue to monitor the San Andreas
fault. Someday they may find a way to predict when and where an
earthquake will occur.
 Devices that Monitor Faults- To observe these changes in
ground movement, geologists put in place instruments that
measure stress and deformation in the crust.
 * Creep Meters-uses a wire stretched across a fault to
measure horizontal movement of the ground. Geologists can
measure the amount that the fault has by measuring how much
the weight has moved against a measuring scale.
 * Laser-Ranging Devices- Uses a laser beam to detect even
the tiny fault movements. The device calculates any change in
the time needed for the laser beam to travel to a reflector
and bounce back.
 * Tiltmeters-measure the tilting of the ground. Consists of
two bulbs that are filled with a liquid and connected by a
hollow stem.
 * Satellite Monitors- Besides ground based instruments,
geologists use satellites equipped with radar to make images
of faults. The satellite bounces radio waves off the ground.
As the waves echo back into space, the satellite records them.
Monitoring Risk in the United States
 Even with data from many sources,
geologists can not predict when and where a
quake will start.
 Geologists do know that earthquakes are
likely wherever plate movement stores
energy in the rock along faults.
 Geologists can determine earthquake risk
by locating where faults are active and
where past earthquakes have occurred.
 In the United States, the risk is highest along
the Pacific coast where the Pacific and North
American plates meet - California, Washington,
and Alaska.
 Other regions of the United States also have
some risk of earthquakes – rare east of the
Rockies.
Chapter 3 Volcanoes
Section 1: Volcanoes and Plate
Tectonics
What is a Volcano?
 A volcano is a weak spot in the crust
where molten material, or magma,
comes to the surface.
 Magma is a molten mixture of rock-forming
substances, gases, and water from the
mantle. When magma reaches the surface,
it is called lava. After lava has cooled, it
forms solid rock.
Location of Volcanoes
 There are about 600 active volcanoes on land. More
lie beneath the sea. Volcanoes occur in belts that
extend across continents and oceans. The Ring of
Fire is one major volcanic belt formed by the many
volcanoes that rim the Pacific Ocean.
 Most volcanoes occur along divergent plate
boundaries, such as the mid-ocean ridge, or in
subduction zones around the edges of oceans.
Volcanoes at Diverging Plate
Boundaries
 Volcanoes form along the m id-ocean
ridge, which marks a diverging plate
boundary. Along the ridge, lava pours
out of the cracks in the ocean floor.
Volcanoes at Converging Boundaries
 Many volcanoes form near plate boundaries
where oceanic crust returns to the mantle.
Subduction causes slabs of ocean crust to
sink through a deep ocean trench into the
mantle.
 Island Arc- a string of volcanoes formed by
the volcanoes along a deep ocean trench.
Hot Spot Volcanoes
 A hot spot is an area where magma from deep within
the mantle melts through the crust like a blow
torch. Hot spots often lie in the middle of
continental or oceanic plates far from any plate
boundaries.
 A hot spot volcano in the ocean floor can gradually
form a series of volcanic mountains.
Chapter 3 Volcanoes
Section 2: Volcanic Activity
How Magma Reaches Earth’s Surface
 Lava begins as magma in the mantle. It
rises until it reaches the surface, or
becomes trapped beneath layers of
rock.
A Volcano Erupts
 As magma rises to the surface, the
pressure decreases. The dissolved
gases begin to separate out, forming
bubbles. During a volcanic eruption, the
gases dissolved in magma rush out,
carrying the magma with them.
Inside a Volcano
 Beneath a volcano, magma collects in a
pocket called a magma chamber.
 The magma moves through a pipe, a long tube
in the ground that connects the chamber to
Earth’s surface.
 Molten rock and gas leave the volcano
through an opening called a vent (side
vents).
 A lava flow is the area covered by lava as it
pours out of a vent.
 A crater is a bowl-shaped area that may
form at the top of a volcano around the
volcano’s central vent.
Inside a Volcano





magma chamber
pipe
vent (side vents)
lava flow
crater
Characteristics of Magma
 The force of a volcanic eruption
depends partly on the amount of gas
dissolved in the magma. Additionally,
how thick or thin the magma is, its
temperature, and its silica content are
also important factors.
Magma’s temperature partly
determines how thick of fluid is.
 The more silica, formed from the elements
of silicon and oxygen, the thicker the
magma is.
 Magma that is high in silica produces light
colored lava that is too sticky flow very far.
This cools and forms Rhyolite.
Other formations:
 Pumice (formed in high silica) when gas bubbles are
trapped in cooling lava, leaving spaces in the rock.
 Obsidian (formed in high silica) when lava cools very
quickly, giving it a smooth, glossy surface.
 Magma that is low in silica flows steadily and
produces dark colored lava. (Example- Basalt)
Types of Volcanic Eruptions
 The silica content of magma helps to determine
whether the volcanic eruption is quiet or
explosive.
 Quiet Eruptions- A volcano erupts quietly as its
magma flows easily. Quiet eruptions produce
two types of lava: Pahoehoe and aa.
 Pahoehoe- fast moving, hot lava. Surface looks like a
solid mass of wrinkles, billows, and ropelike coils.
 aa.-forms a rough surface consisting of jagged lava
chunks.
Explosive Eruptions
 A volcano erupts explosively if its magma is
thick and sticky.
 Thick magma does not flow out of the crater
and down the mountain.
 Instead, it slowly builds up in the volcano’s
pipe, plugging it like a cork in a bottle.
Dissolved gases get trapped and build up
under pressure until they explode.
Pyroclastic flow
 occurs when an explosive eruption
hurls out ash (fine rocky particles),
cinders (pebble sized particles), and
bombs (larger pieces) as well as gases.
Stages of a Volcano
 Active – or “live volcano,” is one that is
erupting or has shown signs that it may erupt in
the near future.
 Dormant – or “sleeping,” is expected to awaken
in the future and become active.
 Extinct – “or dead,” is unlikely to erupt again.
Other Types of Volcanic Activity
 Hot spring- forms when the ground
water heated by a nearby body of
water of magma rises to the surface
and collects in a natural pool..
 Sometimes, rising hot water and stream
become trapped underground in a narrow
crack. Pressure builds up until the mixture
suddenly sprays above the surface as a
geyser.
 In volcanic areas, water heated by magma can
provide a clean, reliable energy source called
geothermal energy
Monitoring Volcanoes
 Geologists have been somewhat more
successful in predicting volcanic eruptions
than in predicting earthquakes. Changes in
and around a volcano usually give warning a
short time before it erupts.
Volcano Hazards
 Although quiet eruptions and explosive eruptions involve
different volcano hazards, both types of eruption can
cause damage far from the crater’s rim.
 Lava can flow from vents setting materials on fire.
 Volcanic ash can bury entire towns, damage crops, and
clog car engines.
 Heavy ash can cause roofs to collapse.
 Eruptions can cause landslides and avalanches of mud,
melted snow, and rock.
Chapter 3 Volcanoes
Section 3: Volcanic Landforms
Landforms from Lava and Ash
 Rock and other materials formed from
lava create a variety of landforms
including shield volcanoes, composite
volcanoes, cinder cone volcanoes, and
lava plateaus.
 Shield volcanoes – created when thin
layers of lava pour out of a vent and
harden on top of previous layers.
 Cinder Cone Volcanoes – steep, cone
shaped, may produce ash, cinders, and
bombs.
 Composite Volcanoes – tall, cone shaped
mountains with alternating layers of ash
 Lava Plateaus – instead of forming mountains,
eruptions may form high level areas called
plateaus. Lava flows out of several cracks along
the area and cool and solidify.
 Calderas – enormous eruptions may
empty vent or chamber and the huge
hole that remains is a caldera.
Soils from Lava and Ash
 Once the hard surface of lava breaks
down, the soil is rich and can support
plant growth. Volcanic ash also breaks
down and releases phosphorous and
other materials that plants need.
Landforms from Magma
 Sometimes magma forces its way
through cracks in the upper crust, but
fails to reach the surface. Features
formed by magma include volcanic
necks, dikes, and sills, as well as
batholiths and dome mountains.
 Volcanic necks – forms when magma
hardens in a volcano’s pipe.
 Dikes – forms when magma forces
itself between rock layers and hardens
 Sills – forms when magma forces itself between
layers of rock.
 Batholiths – large rock masses that form when a
large body of magma cools inside of the crust.
 Dome Mountains-forms when rising magma is
blocked by horizontal layers of rock causing the
layers of rock to bend upward into a dome shape.
Chapter 4 Minerals
Section 1:Properties of Minerals
Properties of Minerals
 What is a Mineral? A mineral is a
naturally occurring, inorganic solid that
has a crystal structure and a definite
chemical composition. For a substance
to be a mineral, it must have all five of
these characteristics.
 Naturally Occurring – must occur
naturally in nature. Cement, brick,
steel, and glass all come from
substance found in the earth’s crust,
but these materials are manufactured
by people.
 Inorganic-the mineral can not arise
from material that was once part of a
living thing.
 Solid-always a solid with a definite
volume and shape.
 Crystal Structure-particles of a
mineral line up in a pattern that
repeats over and over again. The
repeating pattern of a mineral’s
particles forms a solid called a crystal.
 Definite Chemical Composition – the
mineral always contains certain
elements in definite proportions. An
element is a substance composed of a
single kind of atom. All atoms of the
same element have the same chemical
and physical properties.
Identifying Minerals
 Because there are so many different
kinds of minerals, telling them apart
can be challenging. The color of a
mineral alone provides too little
information to make an identification.
Each mineral has its own specific
properties that can be used to identify
it.
Hardness test- Mohs hardness scale –
this scale ranks ten minerals from
softest to hardest.
 Color – the color of a mineral is an easily observed physical
property.
 Streak – a streak test can provide a clue to a mineral’s
identity. The streak of a mineral is the color of its powder.
 Luster – the term used to describe how a mineral reflects
light from its surface. For example, terms to describe luster
are shiny, metallic, earthy, waxy, and pearly.
 Density – (mass in a given space). No matter what
the size of a mineral sample, the density of that
mineral always remains the same.
 Crystal Systems – the crystals of each mineral grow
atom by atom to form that minerals’ particular
crystal structure. There are several different
groups or crystal systems. (6 are described in your
text).
Cleavage and Fracture The way a mineral breaks apart can
help to identify it.
 A mineral that splits easily along flat
surfaces has the property called
cleavage.
 A mineral that breaks apart in an
irregular way is called fracture.
 Special Properties- Some minerals
have special properties: fluorescent,
magnetic, radioactive, chemically
reactive, or electrical properties.
Chapter 4 Minerals
Section 2: How Minerals are
Formed
Process that Form Minerals
 In general, minerals can form in two
ways: through crystallization of melted
materials, and through crystallization
of materials dissolved in water.
Minerals From Magma
 Minerals form as hot magma cools inside the crust, or as lava
hardens on the surface.
 When magma remains deep below the surface, it cools slowly over
months and years. Slow cooling leads to the formation of large
crystals.
 Magma closer to the surface cools much faster than magma that
hardens deep below the ground. With more rapid cooling, there is
no time for magma to form large crystals.
Minerals From Hot Water Solutions –
 A solution is a mixture in which one substance
dissolves in another.
 Pure metals that crystallize underground from hot
water solutions form veins. A vein is a narrow
channel or slab of a mineral that is much different
from the surrounding rock.
 Many minerals form from solutions at places where
tectonic plates spread apart at mid ocean ridges.
 First, ocean water seeps down through the cracks in
the crust. There, the water comes in contact with
magma that heats it to a very high temperature.
The heated water dissolves minerals from the crust
and rushes upward. The hot water billows out of
vents, called “chimneys”. When the hot solution hits
the cold sea, minerals crystallize and settle to the
ocean floor.
Minerals Formed by Evaporation
 Minerals can from when solutions evaporate.
 In the same way, thick deposits of mineral halite
formed over millions of years when ancient seas
slowly evaporated. Other minerals that come from
the evaporation of sea water are gypsum, calcite
crystals, and minerals containing potassium.
Where Minerals Are Found
 Earth’s crust is made mostly of the
common rock forming minerals
combined in various rock. Less common
and rare minerals, however are not
distributed evenly throughout the
crust
 Chapter 5 Rocks
 Section 1 Classifying Rocks
Chapter 5 Rocks
Section 1 Classifying Rocks
How
Geologists
Classify
Rocks
 Rocks are made of mixtures of minerals and
other materials, although some rocks may
contain only a single mineral.
 Geologists collect and study samples of
rocks in order to classify them.
 When studying a rock’s sample, geologists
observe the rocks’ color and texture and
determine its mineral composition.
Texture
 A rock’s texture is the look and feel of
the rock’s surface. Some rocks are
smooth and glassy. Others are rough
and chalky. Most rocks are made of
particles or other rocks, which
geologists call grains.
 Grain Size – the grains may be large and
easy to see (coarse grain) or so small that
they can only be seen with a microscope
(fine grained).
 Grain shape – the grains in rocks vary
widely in shape. Some look like tiny particles
of fine sand while others look like seeds or
exploding stars. Grain shape results from
fragments of other rock. These fragments
can be smooth.

 Grain pattern – the grains in rocks often
form patterns. Some lie in flat layers that
look like a stack of pancakes. Others form
wavy, swirling patterns or look like
multicolored beads. Grains can also be
random.
 No visible grain – these rocks cool very
quickly giving the rock a smooth shiny
texture. Other rocks with no visible grain
are made up of extremely small particles
that settle out of water.
 Mineral Composition – Geologists can
test for the minerals that make up the
rocks.
 Origin – There are three major groups
of rocks: igneous, sedimentary rock,
and metamorphic rock.
 Igneous – forms from the cooling of
molten rock.
 Sedimentary – forms when particles
of other rocks or the remains of plants
and animals are pressed and cemented
together.
 Metamorphic – formed when an
existing rock is changed by heat,
pressure, or chemical reactions.
Chapter 5 and Your
Understanding of Rocks
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Get your lab notebook.
Turn to page 150 in your text book.
Place tables together for groups.
Read instructions
Begin-Follow instructions as you work
through the lab.
Chapter 1: Motion
Section 1: Describing and
Measuring Motion
 Describing Motion-An object is in
motion if its distance from another
object is changing.
 Reference Points-To decide if you are
moving, use a reference point. A
reference point is a place or object used
for comparison to determine if something
changes position relative to its reference
point.
 Objects that are stationary-such as a tree,
a sign, or a building-make good reference
point.
 Relative Motion – Whether or not an object is
in motion depends on the reference point or the
reference that you choose. For example, are
you moving as you read this book? To answer
that question depends on your reference point.
When your chair is your reference point, you
are not moving. But if you choose another
reference point, you are moving.
 Sun example – if you choose the sun as a
reference point, you are moving quite rapidly
because you chair is on the earth and the earth
moves about 30 km every second.
 Measuring Distances – You use units of
measurements to describe motion precisely.
(Standard quantities of measurement).
 Scientists all over the world use the same system of
measurements - International System of Units.
 When describing motion, scientists use SI units to
describe the distance an object moves. When you
measure distance, you measure length. The SI unit
of length is 1 meter.
 The length of an object smaller than a meter is
called the centimeter.
 Calculating Speed – A measurement of
distance can tell you how far an object
travels. If you know the distance an
object travels in a certain amount of
time, you can calculate the speed of an
object.
 The speed of an object is the distance
the object travels per unit of time.
 The speed equation: Speed =
Distance/Time
 Average Speed: The speed of most
moving objects is not constant:
 The average speed equation: Total
Distance/Total Time
 Instantaneous Speed: The rate at which an
object is moving at a given instant in time.
 Describing Velocity – Knowing the speed at
which something travels does not tell you
everything in motion. To describe the
objects motion completely, you need to know
both the speed and direction of an object’s
motion.
 Velocity- speed in a given direction.
 Graphing Motion. You can show the motion
of an object on a line graph in which you plot
distance versus time. Time is shown on a
horizontal, or x axis. Distance is shown on
the vertical, or y axis.
 The steepness of a line on a graph is called
slope. The slope tells you how fast one
variable changes in relation to the other
variable in the graph.
 Calculating Slope: You can calculate the
slope of a line by dividing the rise by the
run.
 Different Slopes – Moving objects do not
travel at a constant speed. See line graph
that is divided into 3 segments (pg.15)
Speed Challenge Demonstration
Chapter 1: Motion
Section 2: Acceleration
What is Acceleration?
 In science, acceleration refers to increasing speed,
decreasing speed, or changing direction.
 Increasing Speed-When an object’s speed increases,
the object accelerates.
 Decreasing Speed-When an object’s speed decreases,
the change is speed is sometimes called acceleration or
deceleration.
 Changing Direction – recall that an object can
be in a change of direction as well as a change in
speed. Therefore a car accelerates as it
follows a curve in a track.
 Many objects continuously change direction
without changing speed. The simplest example
of this motion is along a circular path.
Calculating Acceleration
 Acceleration describes the rate at which
velocity changes. If an object is not changing
direction, you can describe its acceleration as
the rate at which its speed changes. To
determine acceleration of an object moving in
a straight line, you must calculate the
change in speed per unit of time.
 Acceleration: (Final speed-Initial speed)/Time
 Write the following problems in your notes.
Solve them.
Suppose a sprinter's velocity changes from 0 m/s to
10 m/s in 2 seconds at the start of a race. What is
her acceleration?
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1. Write formula
2. Fill in information.
3. Keep units
4. Cancel out
5. Write answer.
A car starts from rest and accelerates at 2
m/s/s for 5 seconds. How fast will it be
going?
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1. Write formula
2. Fill in information.
3. Keep units
4. Cancel out
5. Write answer.
A car's velocity changes from +2 m/s to +10
m/s in 4 seconds. What is its acceleration?
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1. Write formula
2. Fill in information.
3. Keep units
4. Cancel out
5. Write answer.
A car's velocity changes from +10 m/s
to +2 m/s in 4 seconds. What is its
acceleration?
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1. Write formula
2. Fill in information.
3. Keep units
4. Cancel out
5. Write answer.
 Graphing Acceleration: You can use both a
speed-versus-time graph and a distanceversus-time graph to analyze the motion of
an accelerating object.
 Speed-versus-time graph-The slant of the
speed versus time graph tells you how the
object is accelerating. The slope of the
speed versus time graph tells you the
object’s acceleration.
Speed-versus-time graph
 Distance-versus-time graph- You can
represent the motion of an accelerating object
with a distance-versus time graph.
 See figure 12 on pg. 12 - The curved line means
that the object is accelerating.
 The curved line also tells you that during each
second the speed is greater than the second before.
 From second to second the slope gets steeper.
 Since the slope is increasing, you can conclude that
the speed is also increasing- the object is
accelerating.
Distance-versus-time graph-
Which object has a faster
speed? How do you know?
What does this graph tell you about
acceleration?
Chapter 2: Forces
Section 1: The Nature of Force
What is a Force?
 In science, a force is a push or a pull.
When one object pushes or pulls
another object, you say that the first
object exerts a force on the second
object.
 Like velocity and acceleration, a force is
described by its strength and by the
direction in which it acts.
 The strength of a force is measured in the SI
unit called Newton (N).
 You exert about one Newton of force when
you lift a small lemon.
Combining Forces
 Often, more than a single force acts on an object at
one time. The combination of all forces acting on an
object is called the net force.
 The net force determines whether an object moves
and also in which the direction it moves.
 Forces can act in the same direction or in opposite
directions.
Unbalanced Forces
 When there is a net force acting on an object, the
forces are unbalanced. Unbalanced forces can cause
an object to start moving, stop moving, or change
direction. Unbalanced forces acting on an object
result in a net force and cause a change in the object’s
motion.
 http://scienceclass.net/Physics/Force_Motion/forces_wsREG_V2.pdf
Balanced Forces
 When forces are exerted on an object,
the object’s motion does not always
change. Balanced forces acting on an
object do not change the object’s
motion. Equal forces acting on one
object in opposite directions are called
balanced forces.
Practice with Balancing
Forces
Chapter 2: Forces
Section 2: Friction and Gravity
 Friction is the force that two surfaces
exert on each other when they rub
against each other.
The Causes of Friction
 The strength of the force of friction depends on
two factors: how hard the surfaces push together
and the types of surfaces involved.
 Static Friction. The friction that acts on objects
that are not moving is called static friction.
 Sliding Friction. Occurs when two solid
surfaces slide over each other.
 Rolling Friction. When an object rolls across
a surface, rolling friction occurs.
 Fluid Friction. Fluids such as water, oil, or
air, are materials that flow easily. Fluid
friction occurs when a solid object moves
through a fluid.
Go over Free Body
Diagrams
Gravity
 Gravity is a force that pulls objects toward
each other.
 The law of Universal Gravitation
 This law states that the force of gravity
acts between all objects in the universe.
This means that any two objects in the
universe attract each other.
Factors Affecting Gravity
 Two factors affect the gravitational attraction
between objects: mass and distance.
 -Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in an
object. SI unit for mass is kilogram. The more mass an
object has, the greater the gravitational force.
 Weight and Mass
 Mass is sometimes confused with weight. Mass is a
measure of the amount of matter in an object; weight is
a measure of the gravitational force exerted on an
object. Weight varies with the strength of the
gravitational force but mass does not.
Gravity and Motion
 On earth, gravity is a downward force that affects all
objects.
 Free Fall
 When the only force acting on an object is gravity, the
object is said to be in free fall. An object in free fall is
accelerating. Why?-In free fall, the force of gravity is
an unbalanced force, which causes an object to
accelerate.
 Near earth’s surface, the acceleration due to gravity is
9.8m/s2. This means that for every second an object
is falling, its velocity increases by 9.8m/s.
Air Resistance
 Despite the fact that all objects are supposed to
fall at the same rate, you know that this is not
always the case. Objects falling through the air
experience a type of fluid friction called air
resistance.
 *Remember that friction is the direction opposite
to motion, so air resistance is an upward force
exerted on falling objects.
 Air Resistance is not the same for all objects.
Falling objects with greater surface area
experience more air resistance
 Air resistance increases with velocity. As a
falling object speeds up, the force of air
resistance becomes greater and greater.
 Eventually, a falling object will fall fast enough
that the upward force of air resistance becomes
equal to the downward force of gravity acting on
the object.
 At this point the forces on the object
are balanced. The object continues to
fall, but its velocity remained constant.
The greatest velocity a falling object
reaches is called its terminal velocity.
Projectile Motion
 An object that is thrown is called a
projectile.
 Will a projectile that is thrown horizontally
land on the ground at the same time as an
object that is dropped?
 Answer –Yes. Even though one ball moves
horizontally, the force of gravity is acting on
both balls and will hit the ground at the same
time.
5-18-10
Science Notes:
Ch. 2, section 3 and 4
Newton’s Laws
The First Law of Motion
 Newton’s first law of motion states that an object at
rest will remain at rest, and an object moving at a
constant velocity will continue moving at a constant
velocity, unless it is acted upon by an unbalanced force.
Inertia
 The tendency of an object to resist a change in motion.
Inertia explains many common events, such as why you
move forward in your seat when a car stops suddenly.
When the car stops, inertia keeps you moving forward.
Inertia Depends on Mass
 Some objects have more inertia than other objects.
 The greater the mass of an object, the greater the
inertia, and the greater the force required to change
motion.
 Example: Suppose you needed to move an empty aquarium
and an aquarium full of water. Which on is harder to move
and why?
 The full aquarium is harder to move because it has more
mass. The greater the mass of an object, the greater the
force required to change its motion. The full aquarium is
more difficult to move because it has more inertia than
the empty inertia.
The Second Law of Motion
 According to Newton’s second law of motion, acceleration
depends on the object’s mass on the net force acting on
the object. This relationship is written as an equation:
 Acceleration = Net force/Mass
 Acceleration is measured in meters per second per
second.
 Force is measured in kilograms times meters per second
per second (kg * m/s2).
 The short form for this is Newton (N). (1 Newton as the
force required to give a 1kg mass an acceleration on 1
m/s2 .
Changes in Force and Mass
 How can you increase the acceleration of an
object?
 *One way is to change the force-increase the
force (keeping the mass the same)
 *Another way is to change the mass – decrease
the mass (keeping the force the same)
Chapter 2 Forces
Section 4: Newton’s Third Law
 Newton’s third law of motion states that if one object
exerts a force on another object, then the second
object exerts a force of equal strength in the opposite
direction on the first object.
 Action-Reaction Pairs
 When the gymnast does a flip, he pushes down on the
vaulting horse. The reaction force of the vaulting horse
pushes him up to complete the flip.
 When the dog leaps, it pushes down on the ground. The
reaction force of the ground pushes the dog in the air.
 The kayaker’s paddle pulls on the water. The reaction
force of the water pushes back on the paddle, causing the
kayak to move.
 .
Do Action-Reaction Forces Cancel?
 Earlier we learned that if two equal forces act in
opposite directions on an object, the forces are
balanced. Because the two forces add up to zero, they
cancel each other out and produce no change in motion.
 Why don’t action and reaction forces cancel each other
out? It is because they are acting on different objects
5-24-10
Science Notes:
Ch. 4, section 1
What is Work?
 The Meaning of Work: In SCIENTIFIC terms
Work is done on an object when the object
moves in the same direction in which the force
is exerted. Example – If you push a child on a
swing, you are doing work on the child.
 No Work without Motion: To do work, the
object must move a distance as a result of your
force. If you exert a force on an object but
the object does not move, you are not doing
work.
Force in the Same Direction
 Remember-to do work on an object, the
force must be in the same direction as the
objects motion. Returning to the example
of work when lifting and carrying a back
pack. You are not doing work when you are
carrying your bag pack. You only did work
when you lifted your back pack
Calculating Work
 The amount of work done on an object can be
determined by multiplying force times the
distance.
 Work = Force * Distance
 When force is measured in newtons and distance
in meters, the SI unit of work is the Newton *
meter (N*m) – this unit is called a joule.
 One joule (J) is the amount of work you do when
you exert a force of 1 newton to move an object a
distance of 1 meter.
Power:
 The amount of work you do on an object is not
affected by the time it takes to do the work.
For example, if you carry a backpack up a flight
of stairs, the work you do is the weight of the
backpack times the height of the stairs.
(Work = Force * Distance)
 Time is important when we talk about power.
Power is the rate at which work is done. Power
equals that amount of work done on an object in a
unit of time.
Calculating Power
 Power = Work/Time
Or
 Power = Force * Distance
Time
 Power Units: When work is measured in
joules and time in seconds, the SI unit of
power in the joule per second (J/s).
5-26-10
Science Notes:
Ch. 4, section 2
How Machines Do Work
 What is a Machine? A machine is a
device that allows you to do work in a
way that is easier. A machine makes
work easier by changing at least one of
three factors. A machine may change
the amount of force you exert, the
distance over which you exert your
force, or the direction in which you
exert your force.
Input and Output Work
 The input force times the input distance is called the input work.
 The output force times the output distance is called the output
work.
 Changing Force: In some machines, the output force is greater
than the input force. Remember the formula for work is Force *
Distance, therefore if the amount of work stays the same, a
decrease in force must mean an increase in distance.
 (example- pushing a box up a ramp instead of lifting it onto a stageyou exert less force over a greater distance when pushing the box
up the ramp).
Input and Output Work
 Changing Distance: In some machines the output force is
less than the input force. In order to apply a force over
a shorter distance, you need to apply a greater input
force.
 (example- taking a shot with a hockey stick. You move
your hands a short distance, but the other end of the
stick moves a greater distance).
 Changing Direction: Some machines don’t change either
force or distance.
 Think abut a weight machine. You could stand and lift
the weights, but it is easier to sit on the machine and
pull down than to lift up.
Mechanical Advantage:
 If you compare the input force to the output force,
you can find the advantage of using a machine. A
machine’s mechanical advantage is the number of
times a machine increases a force exerted on it.
 It is calculated using the following formula:
Output Force
Input Force
 Increasing Force: When the output force is
greater than the input force, the mechanical
advantage of a machine is greater than 1.
 Increasing Distance: For a machine that
increases distance, the output force is less
than the input force.So in this case, the
mechanical advantage is less than 1.
 Changing Direction: If only the direction
changes, the input force will be the same as
the output force. The mechanical advantage
will always be 1.
Efficiency of Machines:
 In real life the output work is always less than the
input work.
 Friction and Efficiency. In every machine, some work
is wasted overcoming the force of friction. The less
friction there is, the closer the output work is to the
input work.
 The efficiency of a machine compares the output work
to the input work. Efficiency is expressed as a
percent. The higher the percent, the more efficient
the machine is.
 Calculating Efficiency: To calculate the
efficiency of a machine, divide the
output work by the input work and
multiply the result by 100%.
 Efficiency = Output work * 100%
Input Work
Real and Ideal Machines:
 An ideal machine has an efficiency of
100%. Unfortunately, an ideal machine
does not exist. In all machines, some
work is wasted due to friction.
 A machine’s measured mechanical
advantage is called actual mechanical
advantage.
Chapter 4 Work and Machines
Section 3: Simple
Machines
 There are six basic kinds of simple
machines: the inclined plane, the lever,
the wedge, the screw, the wheel and
axel, and the pulley.
Inclined
Plane:
 A flat, sloped surface.
 How it works: An inclined plane allows you to exert your
input force over a longer distance. As a result, the
input force needed is less than the output force.
 Input force-the force to push or pull the object on the
inclined plane.
 Output force-the force you would need to lift the
object without the inclined plane.
 Ideal Mechanical Advantage for an inclined plane:
divide the length of the incline by its height.
 IMA- Length of the incline
Height
Wedge
 a device that is thick at one end and tapers to a thin
edge at another end.
 How it works: When you use a wedge, instead of
moving the object along the inclined plane, you move
the incline plane itself.
 Ideal Mechanical Advantage for a wedge: divide the
length of the wedge by its width. The longer and
thinner the wedge is, the greater its mechanical
advantage.
 IMA - length of the wedge
width
Screws:
 an inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder.
 How it works: example-the threads of a screw act like an inclined
plane to increase the distance over which you exert the input
force. As the threads of the screws turn, they exert an output
force on the wood.
 Mechanical Advantage for a Screw: The closer together the
threads of a screw are, the greater the mechanical advantage.
Why? The closer the threads are, the more times you must turn
the screw to fasten it in the object.
 The input force is applied over a longer distance.
 The ideal mechanical advantage of a screw is the length around
the threads divided by the length of the screws.
 IMA- Length around the threads
Length of the screws
Levers
 a lever is a rigid bar that is free to pivot, or rotate, on a fixed
point. The fixed point that a lever pivots around is called the
fulcrum.
 How it works: (example) using a paint can opener in which the
opener rests against the edge of the can. The edge of the can is
the fulcrum. The tip of the opener is under the lid of the can.

The ideal mechanical advantage of a lever is determined by
dividing the distance from the fulcrum to the input force by
the distance from the fulcrum to the output force
 IMA = Distance from fulcrum to input force
Distance from fulcrum to output force
Different Types of Levers
 First-Class Levers: In all first class lever the
Fulcrum is between the Effort (Input Force)
and Resistance (Output force) (EFR).

Second Class Levers
 In all second class levers the
Resistance (Output force) is between
Fulcrum and the Effort (Input Force)
(FRE).

Third Class Levers
 In all Third class levers the Effort
(Input Force) is between the Resistance
(Output force) and Fulcrum (FER).
Wheel and Axel
 A simple machine made of two circular or cylindrical
objects fastened together that rotate about a common
axis. The object with the larger radius is called the
wheel and the object with the smaller radius is called
the axle.
 How it works: When you use a wheel an axel, such as a
screwdriver, you apply an input force to turn the
handle, or wheel. Because the wheel is larger than the
axel, the axel rotates and exerts a large output force.

 IMA = Radius of wheel

Radius of axel
Pulleys
 A simple machine made of a grooved wheel with a rope
or cable wrapped around it.
 How it works: You use a pulley by pulling on one end
of the rope. This is the input force. At the other end
of the rope, the output force pulls up of the object you
want to move.
 The ideal mechanical advantage of a pulley is equal
to the number of sections of rope that support the
object.
Compound Machines
 A compound machines is a machine that utilizes
two or more simple machines. The ideal
advantage of a compound machine is the
product of the individual ideal mechanical
advantages of the simple machines that make
it up.