Culture, Identity and Wellbeing in
Children and Young People
Shanti Raman
Area Community Paediatrician-CP
Sydney South West Area Health Service
Proposed Structure of Presentation:
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Background
Definitions
Hypothesis
Critical theories: identity, acculturation
Culture and child rearing
What needs to be done
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Context
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Migration: universal phenomenon
Unprecedented internal/ external migration
Australia today: dynamic multicultural society
Globalisation:
– Rapid social change
– Positive and negative results
– Differential effects on the poor
Shanti Raman
Why cultural identity and wellbeing?
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Global burden of mental health problems: in
Australian children 1 in 6
Cultural influences on child development and
behaviour
Little scholarly work on cultural identity and
links to wellbeing in Australia
Emerging literature about protective role of
ethnic identity
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Culture
(Frisby, 1992)
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As a pattern of living, customs, traditions, values, attitudes
as significant artistic/humanitarian/scientific achievement of the
group
as “race consciousness” -guide individual identification
as values, norms of the immediate context (eg of the family,
streets, etc)
as refers to superficial differences between macro and micro
groups (ie clothing, music, speech)
as refers to outer appearance (“culturally different”)
Shanti Raman
Definitions
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Ethnicity:
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ethnic self-identity
ascribed ethnic identity
cultural identity
racial identity
Nationality
descent
Race: measure of social exclusion/
inclusion
Helms J, 1997
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Distinctions: racial and ethnic identity
Identity models
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Racial: reactions to societal dynamics of “racial” oppression
based on physical characteristics assumed to be racial or
genetic in nature
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Ethnic: if acquisition or maintenance of cultural characteristics
(eg language, religion) are defining principles
Helms 1996
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Cultural Identity
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captures change, uncertainty and ambiguity
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incorporates diversity and pluralism
there are a number of different ‘selves’ at different
levels and their true psychological integration will
lead to better psychological functioning
Incorporates any factor that may account for
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“differential” patterns of learned or shared behaviour
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Acculturation
Those phenomena which result when
groups of individuals with different
cultures come into continuous first hand
contact; subsequent changes in both
groups (Redfield et al, 1936)
Acculturation
Phinney 1990, based on Berry
et al 1986
Shanti Raman
So how does this relate to
Childrearing.....
And child development,
behaviour?
Child Development ….Complex….
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Change is constant
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Difference is the norm
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Context is central
Shanti Raman
Culture.....Complex!
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Change is constant
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Difference is the norm
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Context is central
Shanti Raman
Relationship between Culture, Moderator Variables
Nondominant
Dominant
Culture
Influences
Cultural
Influences
Acculturation
Enculturation
Ethnic/Racial
Identity
Moderator
Moderator
Variables
Variables
Psychological
functioning
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Moderator Variables
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Type of acculturating group (voluntary or forced)
social characteristics
oppression and legal constraints
racism, prejudice and discrimination
cultural characteristics
language used and fluency
individual characteristics
Shanti Raman
Where does that leave us?
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Examining children and development in their cultural
context…..complex
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More problematic definitions: behaviour, disorder,
illness, mental health,
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Need to consider multiple levels: family, school,
peers, society, health services
Shanti Raman
Culture and child development
“The biological immaturity of children
is the only fact with any certainty that
can be said about children’s
development.”
Sami Timimi 2005
Parenting is a universal, but highly
variable behaviour
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Feeding
sleeping
discipline and moral reasoning
toilet training
teaching
communicating
giving affection
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It is known that childrearing practices
influence the rate and expression of
children’s development
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The Milestone Approach
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The Age Range Approach: DDST
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Not all children develop according to the commonly
used guidelines:
Methodical problems in many studies prevent generalisation of findings
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Motor precocity of African infants who sit, crawl and walk
at least two months earlier than caucasian infants
(Ainsworth, 1977; Geber and Dean, 1957; Capute et al, 1985)
Fine motor precocity but delayed walking of Yucatecan
Mexican infants compared to US norms (Solomons and
Solomons, 1975)
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Advanced attainment of pencil skills in Japanese
children compared to British norms (Saida and Miyashita, 1979)
Slight motor delay of Mayan Indian infants compared to
US norms (Brazelton, 1972)
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Cultural Differences in Skill and Behaviour
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Early motor development
Obedience
Toilet training
Verbal Skills
Temperament
Feeding
Crying
Independence
Learning
Sleeping
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Early Emotional Learning in Infants:
A Cross-Cultural Examination
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Emotional and interactive behavior learnt in the 1st
year of life: much of this learning takes place
subcortically
Wide review of published literature: Richman, Miller &
Solomon, Le Vine et al, Barr, Brazelton, Sigel
2 widely divergent parental models:
– Pedagogic
– Child centred
Shanti RamanCommons
and Miller 1998
Cultural differences in Parental Goals
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Pedagogic: major goals are for children to
learn to feel emotionally independent from
their parents and to develop interactive and
language skills
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Child-centred: a model in which the most
important goal is protecting the health and
survival of the infant
Hallmark study: Le Vine et al 1994, Child care and culture: Lessons from Africa.
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Pedagogic Model
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Pedagogic Model (Western model)
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Independence and Sleeping Patterns
– infants in their own beds and often in their own rooms
– lack of co-sleeping
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Other Separation
– relatively tolerant of other separations: eg infants left with
unrelated nonresident babysitters, weekend away
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Verbalizing and face to face interaction
– parents believe infants are active participants in interactions
– they talk to, look at, smile at and interact with infants from
birth
– emphasis on verbal interaction,  emphasis on physical
contact
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Consoling
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– mothers relatively tolerant of infant crying
Child-Centred Model
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Child Centred Model: largely non-western
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Independence and Sleeping Patterns
– Co-sleeping and breastfeeding on demand
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High physical contact
Consoling
– respond rapidly to crying, high rates of holding and touching
– increased holding by mothers tends to result in infants who cry
less
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Verbalizing and face to face interaction
– do not typically talk to their infants extensively
– do not see infants as capable of communicating or of
understanding language
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– do not engage in stimulating
face-to-face interactions
Cultural differences in Goals of Development
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Western world: career, marriage, house, car, TV
Traditional (Aboriginal): achieving full tribal status
Immigrant families: children better off than parents,
security, pride in children’s success
Factors influencing
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Parents own status
Migration story: refugee, economic, push/pull factors
Religious affiliations
Political environment
Gender
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Contrasting Cultural Practices:
Communication
Mainstream
Non-Western
Adults have “conversations” with
young infants. Adults endow the
smallest vocalisations of the baby
with meaning and intentionality,
and react to them emotionally.
Children learn language primarily through
eavesdropping and observing. Adults usually
do not “talk with” young infants.
There is an emphasis on direct,
verbal learning for infants.
There is an emphasis on nonverbal,
observational learning for infants.
Shanti Raman
Contrasting Cultural Practices
Mainstream
Non-Western
Babies spend a lot of time by
themselves – sleeping in separate
rooms, and amusing themselves in
playpens – and learn to use verbal
communication to get the attention
of adults, e.g. calling out to the
parent or caregiver out of necessity.
Babies are often in close physical contact with
the parents or caregivers. These babies learn
to use nonverbal communication such as
gestures with their hands or changes in muscle
tone or posture to get their needs met.
Adults encourage infants to learn
During feeding the adult’s primary purpose
self-feeding, even if learning to self- may be to ensure that the child eats an
feed means making a mess.
adequate meal with the minimum amount of
waste or mess.
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Contrasting Cultural Practices
Non-Western
Mainstream
Toilet training typically occurs
Toilet training is introduced when the child is
when the child is physically mature quite young. The child learns through being
and able to talk. The child learns
cooperative in a partnership with the parent
through becoming increasingly
dependent
Children are provided with a scaleddown version of adult activities.
During interactions in such activities
the parent adjusts speech and actions to
the child’s level of skill and
understanding.
Children learn about adult activities by being
present as adults go about their jobs and household
tasks. Children have responsibility to learn
culturally valued behaviours and practices by
observing adults.
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What about psychological
wellbeing?
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?? Wellbeing: difficult to measure
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Meta-analysis of acculturation and adjustment (1992)
No consistent unidirectional effect
SES very important
Low SES groups:  symptoms and conflict with acculturation
High SES groups with ethnic social support networks: high self
esteem and coping (eg Asians)
Ethnic social network + SES = sense of efficacy and adaptation
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Ethnic Identity and Wellbeing in Chinese and
Turkish teens in Netherlands (Verkuyten 1994)
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4 types of identification: dissociative, acculturative (bicultural),
assimilative, marginal
Majority were dissociative or acculturative
Turkish: those who identified with own group and biculturals had
positive self esteem
– Girls who were dissociative had higher self esteem than boys
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Chinese: assimilative and marginal group had more negative
feelings, correlated with low collectivism scores
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Ethnic Identity in ethnocultural youth and
Wellbeing (Roberts, Phinney et al 1999)
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5,500 students in high school, Houston: AA, Euro, Hispanics,
Chinese, Indian, Vietnamese, PI, mixed
Measures: Ethnic identity, self esteem, coping, optimism,
mastery, loneliness, depression
MEIM: overall reliable across diverse groups
High ethnic identity scores: associated with self-esteem, coping,
mastery and optimism
Correlation of ethnic salience with MEIM: high
European Americans: lowest scores on ethnic identity
Indian and Pakistani teens highest scores on ethnic identity
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Where does that leave us?
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Culture, Identity, Wellbeing, Development…..
– complex+++
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Comprehensive assessment of effects of culture on
children’s wellbeing may not be possible
– but worth giving a shot
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Need to consider multiple levels: family, school,
peers, society, health services
– also age, gender and language
Shanti Raman
Recommendations:
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Socio-cultural/political background of immigrant gps
Acknowledge importance of culture in children’s
behaviour and development
Understand benefits of cultural capital
Assessment of cultural identity:
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language use
cultural practices and pride
Perceived prejudice/discrimination
religious affiliation
socialisation with in-group
Shanti Raman