Biology 1-2
Review for the EOC
Vocabulary Found in Many Short Answer or
Multiple Choice Questions
•
•
•
•
•
Reliability
Validity
Unintended Consequences
Equilibrium
Constraint
Reliability vs. Validity
Reliability
• Are your results repeatable?
• Ensuring reliability means:
– Multiple trials
– Similar results when tested
over and over again
– Another scientist should be
able to repeat your experiment
and get the same results
Validity
• Is your experiment
controlled?
• Ensuring validity means:
– Following steps to scientific
method such as:
– Having a proper control set-up
(experiment without the
manipulated variable … the
normal situation)
– Accurately measuring
Unintended Consequences
• A result that took place based on your action that you didn’t
intend to happen … Ooops!
• Example:
– Action: Spray insecticide to kill mosquitoes
– Result: More animals die because the mosquitoes are gone and that was
their food source or the poison builds up along the food chain and the
top consumers die.
• Example:
– Action: Remove wolves from Yellowstone National Park
– Result: Herbivores (elk, deer) reproduce too fast and eat all the
vegetation so their population actually go down along with many other
species.
Equilibrium
• Balance or Homeostatis (steady state)
• Sometimes we call this negative feedback
because it tends to work in a cycle.
– Examples:
• Temperature and Blood Sugar regulation
Constraint
• Something that makes a project
difficult to do or undertake.
• For example, not every experiment
or field study is possible to do
perfectly because of these
restrictions:
– Schedule … enough time?
– Risk … can I get hurt?
– Resources … space or material?
– Budget … too expenseive?
– Quality … can it be well done?
– Scope … is it relevant?
Lab Investigations
Experimental Design
and
Observational
Experimental Variables and Set-ups
Variables
• Manipulated variable
– What you change.
– What your experiment is
testing?
– Ex: color of light on plant
growth (change light color)
• Responding variable
– What you measure (growth)
• Contolled varialbes
– Keep the same between setups (same amount of water,
soil, temperature, etc.)
Set-ups
• Experimental Set-ups
– Set-ups in which you change
the manipulated variable
– Example: plants grown with
blue light, red light, green
light
• Control Set-up
– Used to compare with the
experimental set-ups to find
out if the manipulated
variable had an effect
– Example: plants grown in
regular light
Experimental Design Labs
What’s Alive? – what was manipulated
• BTB is used to detect Carbon Dioxide
9/24/14
9/27/14
Figure 1
• Did the beans produce Carbon Dioxide?
Using a control
• Use a control with ONLY ONE
DIFFERENCE to be sure that the beans
were the cause of the change in BTB.
9/24/07
Figure 2
9/27/07
Notice: The control is without beans.
Therefore, beans must have caused the change.
Liver Lab – what was manipulated?
• H2O2 + liver (catalase)
• H2O2 is hydrogen peroxide
• Catalase
H2O + O2
– Breaks hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen
• Time of O2 (oxygen) bubbles released was
measured
• Enzyme characteristics:
–
–
–
–
Can be reused over and over again
Cold temperature slows them up
Warm temp speeds them up
Can be destroyed if boiled … don’t work
Egg Lab
• Osmosis
– The diffusion of water
• Hypertonic (saltwater)
– More salt outside the cell
– Water moves out and cell shrinks
• Hypotonic (freshwater)
– Less salt outside the cell
– Water moves in and cell swells/bursts
• Isotonic
– Same salt in and out of the cell
– No change in mass (water moves equally in and out)
Carbon Dioxide and Exercise
• When you exercise you exhale more
carbon dioxide. Why?
– The mitochondria is working more to produce ATP so you have energy
and carbon dioxide is a waste product of this process. Specifically, the
carbon dioxide is coming from the Kreb’s cycle in the mitochondria.
– In this lab, we noticed that the “pink solution” turned clear much faster
after exercise than it did at rest.
– http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/biocoach/cellresp/intro.html
Yeast Lab – How does the amount of food
(molasses) affect respiration?
Amount of CO2
produced (air
bubble in the
tube)
Molasses concentration (low to high)
Aerobic Respiration
uses oxygen
C6H12O6 + O2
CO2 + H2O +
ATP
3 Basic Steps:
1) Glycolysis (in the cytoplasm)
glucose
pyruvate + ATP + NADH
2) Kreb’s Cycle (mitochondria)
pyruvate
NADH + FADH2 + ATP + CO2
3) Electron Transport Chain (mitochondria)
NADH + FADH2 + O2
ATP + H20
Anaerobic Respiration
• Without Oxygen
– No electron transport chain … less ATP
• 2 types:
1)Alcoholic fermentation: (bacteria, yeast)
Pyruvate + NADH
Ethanol + NAD+ + CO2
2)Lactic Acid fermentation: (animals like
you)
Pyruvate + NADH
Lactic Acid + NAD+
What’s different about these two equations?
How can you set up an experiment to detect the difference?
Photosynthesis Lab – Leaf Disc
• What was being manipulated?
• What happened?
• What would determine whether the
experiment was reliable and valid?
Snail and Elodea
• Use BTB to detect the release (produced)
of Carbon Dioxide.
– Blue to green or yellow show this.
• Use BTY to detect the use (taken in) of
Carbon dioxide.
– Yellow to green or blue shows this.
Hypothesis 1:
Snails produce CO2.
Experimental
Control
BTB
BTB
Hypothesis 1: Results
Experimental
Control
BTY
BTB
Results: Snails produce carbon dioxide
Hypothesis 2:
Elodea takes in CO2.
Experimental
Control
BTY
BTY
Hypothesis 2: Results
Experimental
Control
BTB
BT
BTY
BT
Results: Elodea uses carbon dioxide in the light.
Hypothesis 3:
Snails produce CO2 in the dark.
Experimental
Control
BTB
BTB
Hypothesis 3: Results
Experimental
Control
BTY
BTB
Results:
Snails produce carbon dioxide in the dark
Hypothesis 4:
Elodea uses (takes in) CO2 in the dark.
Experimental
Control
BTY
BTY
Hypothesis 4: Results
Experimental
Control
BTY
BT
BTY
BT
Results: Elodea does not use carbon dioxide in the dark.
Hypothesis 5:
Elodea produces (releases) CO2 in the dark.
Experimental
Control
BTB
BTB
Hypothesis 5: Results
Experimental
Control
BTY
BTB
Results: Elodea produces carbon dioxide in the dark.
Observation Labs
Diffusion Lab with Dialysis Tubing
• Diffusion
– The movement of molecules from an area of
high to low concentration
• Permeable
– Molecules can pass through the membrane
• Impermeable
– Molecules cannot pass through the membrane
• Semipermeable
– Some molecules can pass through the membrane
while others cannot
Why are cells so small?
Size (cm)
SA:V
3x3
2:1
2x2
3:1
1x1
6:1
0.5 x 0.5
12 : 1
Conclusion: Small cells have a larger SA:V ratio. This ratio
allows the cell to diffuse materials in and out
more efficiently.
Which cell would you want to be?
Why?
Cell A
Cell B
Answer: Cell B
Surface Area : Volume (SA:V) ratio is greater!
Access to nutrients and waste removal is easier.
Time for Mitosis
• www.biology.arizona.edu
– Click on Onion Root Tips
at the Top and follow the
directions
– Mitosis is the type of cell
division that makes exact
copies of cells for
growth and repair
Interphase
Number of
cells
Percent of
cells
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Total
36
100%
Biomolecules
What are Organic Compounds?
• Sugars, Fats, Food, Yourself!
– Compounds that contain carbon (basis of all
living things)
– Extracted from living things
– Examples: Pancakes, Beef, Bread, Butter
• Inorganic Compounds
– Usually do not contain Carbon
– Examples: Salt, Rust, Water.
All Organic Compounds have a
Monomer-Polymer relationship
• Monomers
– Sub-units
– Building blocks of a
larger structure
• Examples:
– Monosaccharides
» glucose
– Amino acids
– Fatty acids
– Nucleotides
• Polymers
– Larger molecules
– Two or more monomers
linked together.
• Examples:
– Polysaccharides
» starch
– Proteins
– Fats
– DNA or RNA
You Are What You Eat!
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•
•
•
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Lipids
Vitamins and Minerals
What happens now?
• When you repair yourself or form new
parts you have to put together many
molecules.
• The food you eat needs to be broken
down!
• You can then piece back together the
small parts to make you!
Metabolism (break down and
build up reactions)
Keep in mind you are what you
eat. You breakdown your food and
rearrange it to make the molecules
that build and repair your cells.
Food is used for energy and
building blocks.
Carbohydrates
• General Formula: CH2O
• Example: C6H12O6 (glucose)
• Pasta, Apple pie, Chocolate cake, Juice!
• Simple Energy Source
3 types of carbohydrates:
– Monosaccharides
• One molecule of sugar
• Glucose, Fructose
– Disaccharides
• 2 monosaccharides linked together
• Maple Syrup, Lactose (milk sugar)
– Polysaccharides
• Many monosaccharides linked together
• Starch, Glycogen(stored energy in our liver and
muscle), Cellulose (used to thicken ice cream).
Proteins
• Made up of Amino Acids
• C, H, O and N
• Functions:
– Some energy storage
– Make up many parts of our body
• Ex: Hair, Blood cells, Hormones (insulin)
– Enzymes: special proteins that speed up a
chemical reaction.
Lipids
• C, H, O
• High Energy Storage
• Types
– Fats: Glycerol and Fatty Acids
• Saturated vs. Unsaturated Fats
– Steroids: Cholesterol
– Oils
– Waxes
– Phospholipids: make up cell membranes
Enzymes
• Special proteins that speed up chemical
reactions to a biologically useful rate.
• Examples:
–
–
–
–
Salivary amylase – breaks starch into glucose
Catalase – breaks hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen
Protease – breaks proteins into amino acids
Lipase – breaks fats into fatty acids and glycerol
Enzymes have an optimal environment
at which they work best
The Cell
The cell theory
a) Cells are the basic unit of life
b) All living things are composed of cells
c) Cells arise from preexisting cells
• Plant from plant
• Animal from animal
Cell membrane – phospholipid bilayer
Phosphate head like
water (hydrophilic).
Lipid tails don’t like
water (hydrophobic).
Some molecules
can slip through the
phospholipid bilayer
but many molecules
will have to use a
protein channel (not
shown) to get
through.
Cell Parts and Their Jobs
Parts of the cell:
• Cell membrane
– “gate keeper”
• Nucleus
– Contains DNA
• Chromosomes
– “blueprints”
• Nucleolus
– Makes ribosomes
• Cytoplasm
– Jelly-like inside of cell
where most reactions take
place
Cell organelles:
• Mitochondria
• “powerhouse”
• Golgi apparatus
– “packaging dept.”
• Lysosome
– “shredder”, digestion
• Endoplasmic reticulum
– “transportation dept.”
• Chloroplast
– Makes food via
photosynthesis
• Vacuole
– “storage” of water/food
Animal vs. Plant Cell
• Animal Cell
– Round
– No cell wall
– Centriole for division
• Plant Cell
– Rectangular
– Cell wall
– Chloroplast for
photosynthesis
http://www.biolessons.com/lessonplans/cellularbiology/plant_animal_cell/plant_animalcell.asp
Different Cells
• Prokaryote
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–
–
–
Bacteria
No “true” nucleus
Cell wall
No organelles with
membranes
• Eukaryote
– Animal and Plant
– Organelles
– Nucleus
Movement in and out of Cells
• Diffusion
– Movement of molecules from high to low
concentrations
– No energy needed
• Passive transport
• Facilitated Diffusion
– Need a protein channel but still passive
• Active Transport
– Uses energy to move molecules from low to high
concentration
• Osmosis
– Diffusion of water (no energy)
Transport in/out of Cells
Some times molecules are
so big they can’t even fit
through the protein
channels.
The membrane can fold in
or out to form vesicles that
carry lots of material.
Endocytosis – membrane
folds in and brings along
the materials it needs.
Exocytosis – membrane
folds out and gets rid of
waste or sends out
materials for other cells.
Cells and Solutions
• Hypotonic
– Less solute (salt)
outside the cell
– “freshwater”
• Hypertonic
– More solute (salt)
outside the cell
– “saltwater”
• Isotonic
– Equal solutes in/out of
cell
Cellular Reproduction
• Cell Cycle
– Interphase
• G1
• S
• G2
– Mitosis
•
•
•
•
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
– Cytokinesis
Interphase
• G1
– General cell growth
• S phase
– DNA replication
• G2
– Second growth phase, organelles double
Mitosis makes
exact copies
of the cell for
growth and
repair.
Meiosis makes sex
cells with only half
the chromosomes
(one of each kind)
for reproduction.
Mitosis would copy each chromosome and divide
them evenly to make two identical cells.
Meiosis would copy each chromosome and then
divide them twice so that the egg and sperm end up
with only one of each kind (one #1, one #2 and so on).
What’s the chance a child will receive the exact egg or
sperm as their sibling?
Looking at the
chromosomes can you
determine the gender of
the person?
Mitosis vs. Meiosis
• Mitosis animation: Click the link below
– http://www.lewport.wnyric.org/jwanamaker/ani
mations/mitosis.html
• Meiosis animation: Click the link below
– http://www.lewport.wnyric.org/jwanamaker/ani
mations/meiosis.html
Photosynthesis and Respiration
Photsynthesis and Respiration
• What’s energy?
• What’s ATP?
• How is energy released?
Energy
All living cells use energy for life processes.
• Original source is our Sun.
• Autotrophs ("self-feeding") = change light
energy into food energy.
– Green plants, algae
• Heterotrophs ("other feeding") = obtain their
energy from other organisms.
– Animals
Photosynthesis
Sunlight +H2O + CO2
WATER
CARBON
DIOXIDE
O2 + C6H12O6
OXYGEN
GLUCOSE
The process by which green plants change
light energy to food energy.
Occurs in the chloroplast.
energy input
from sun
PHOTOAUTOTROPHS
(plants, other producers)
nutrient
cycling
HETEROTROPHS
(consumers, decomposers)
energy output (mainly heat)
Respiration
• The release of
energy from sugar
or starch for use
by the cell
• Occurs in the
mitochondria
C6H12O6+ O2  CO2 + H2O + energy (ATP)
Products of respiration are used as reactants
in photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis and Respiration are cycles
that work together.
Phototsynthesis
needs C02, water
and sunlight to
make glucose.
Respiration
needs glucose
and O2 and
releases energy
ATP
ATP
adenosine
triphosphate,
the energy
molecule that
powers most
cellular work
ATP is like
a battery
that can be
recharged.
ATP
ADP
The Overall Equation for
Cellular Respiration
• A common fuel molecule for cellular
respiration is glucose
Glucose
Oxygen
Carbon
dioxide
Water
Energy
– This is the overall equation for what happens to
glucose during cellular respiration
• The efficiency of cellular respiration
(and comparison with an auto engine)
Energy released
from glucose
(as heat and light)
Energy released
from glucose
banked in ATP
Gasoline energy
converted to
movement
About
40%
25%
100%
Burning glucose
in an experiment
Figure 6.2B
“Burning” glucose
in cellular respiration
Burning gasoline
in an auto engine
Genetics
Essential Vocab
• Genotype – the symbolized form; gene forumula (ex: BB)
• Phenoypte – physical appearance/description (ex: brown)
• Homozygous – 2 genes that are the same (ex: BB or bb) ; Pure
Bred
• Heterozygous – 2 genes that are different (ex: Bb) ; Hybrid
• Dominant – the stronger gene; appears in the phenotype if
present
• Recessive – the weaker gene; appears in the phenotype only
when homozygous
Punnett Square
Possible offspring:
Parent 1 x
CC
x
Parent 2
cc
Genotypes:
100% Cc
Phenotypes:
100% Curly
Central Dogma Review
DNA to RNA to protein (trait)
What is this process?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
Nucleus
mRNA
Ribosome
tRNA
Anticodon
Codon
mRNA
What are
methionine
and
asparagine?
Can you determine the base sequences?
DNA complementary strand:
CGG GTC GAT ATA
GCC CAG CTA TAT
mRNA sequence: CGG GUC GAU AUA
DNA template strand:
amino acid sequence
(polypeptide):
tRNA’s:
Arg – Val – Asp – Ile
GCC CAG CUA UAU
Ribosomes read the
mRNA codons (3 letters)
and the tRNA brings in
the appropriate amino
acid to build the protein
(polypeptide).
If you change the DNA
(mutation) it changes the
mRNA which changes
the protein.
Evidence of Evolution
Fossil Record
•
•
•
•
Shows a tremendous variety of organisms
Organisms come and go
Reconstruct changes of organisms
Infer behaviors (ex: sharp teeth = carnivore)
Morphology
• Similar types of body structures
• Homologous Structures
– Show common ancestry
– Example: teeth of a bear and teeth of a dog
– Example: arm of a human and flipper of a whale
• Analogous Structure
– Common function but not a common anscestor
– Example: wings of a bird and wings of butterfly
Biochemical and Molecular
• Exact same chemical makeup in biomolecules
–
–
–
–
Carbohydrates (sugars) – C,H,O
Proteins (amino acids) – C,H,O,N,S
Lipids (fats/oils) – C,H,O
Nucleic acids (DNA, RNA) – C,H,O,P
• Similar metabolic processes from humans to
bacteria (same chemical reactions)
• Process of: DNA
RNA
protein
is the same
Embryology
• Embryos of fish,
lizards, turtles,
chickens, pig,
mice and humans
are very similar.
• Embryonic
pattern of
development
seems to be
retained in many
organisms.
Biogeographical data
• Organisms unique to a certain location that has
been isolated for a long time.
– Example: Madagascar has a variety of unique
organisms (lemurs)
• Organisms with very similar body plans are
found in different areas around the world.
– Example: Flightless birds (kiwi, ostrich, rhea, emu,
cassowary)
What’s a Species?
••How
Can
different
types
might
you
separate
these
Do different
types
ofof
dogs
mate
andand
produce NO! … 17 different species
cichlids
mate
dogs
fish
into
into
different
different
species?
species?
viable
offspring
that can
produce
viable offspring
also
reproduce?
that can
also reproduce?
YES! … only 1 species
• Are horses and
donkeys considered to
be the same species?
•
What
is
a
species?
Even though the horse and the
– A group
of organisms
donkey can create
offspring
(a
so similar
mule), mules are
sterile.to one
another that they can
Since mules cannot reproduce the
interbreed and produce
horse and the donkey
are
fertile offspring
considered to be different species.
Reflecting on the “biological species” concept
(tigers and lions) … list criteria required if
organisms are to be of the same species.
Interbreed in nature
Produce fertile offspring
Share common habitats
Have similar body structures
Have similar behaviors
Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection
•
•
•
•
•
Organisms reproduce others of their kind
More offspring than can survive to reproduce
There are variations within populations
Some variations are favorable
Organisms with the favorable variation will
survive to reproduce
• Over long periods of time, favorable
adaptations make up most of the population
Natural Selection
Mechanisms
Normal Distribution – Bell Curve
Almost everything you can think of fits this curve!
Directional Selection
Breeders always select for the fastest greyhounds
Selects for: One extreme trait
Selects against: The most common and other
extreme
Disruptive Selection
Selects For: The two extremes
Selects Against: The most
common
Stabilizing Selection
• Tall trees
– Knocked
over by
wind
• Short trees
– Not enough
sunlight
• Medium
trees
– Perfect!?
Selects For: The most common trait
Selects Against: Both extremes
Review
Natural Selection is not “goal oriented”
 Only acts on traits that currently exists and are best suited
for reproductive success in a particular environment
Example: Tigers will not become blue just because they might
want to
I wish, but he
exists only
in my dreams.
He’s not blue,
but he’s better
than nothing!
Ecology
Energy flows in, is transferred, and
exits the ecosystem.
Materials must be recycled within
the ecoystyem.
Food Chain
• A linked feeding series
Food Web
• Multiple food chains interacting together
Population
• Group of the same type of organisms
(species) living in an area
Producers/Autotrophs
• Make their own food; plants use
photosynthesis
Consumers/Heterotrophs
• Eat other organisms for food and energy
Decomposers
• Breakdown dead material and recycle it
back to the soil for plants to use
Trophic Level
Energy Source
Primary
Producer
Sunlight
energy
Primary
producer
Herbivore
Primary
Carnivore
Secondary
Carnivore
% Energy
Released
During
Metabolism
Herbivores
Primary
carnivore
% Energy % Energy
Released as Released in
Waste
Total
Total kcal
% Energy Transferred
Left to be based on 20,000
Transferred kcal initial
60%
20%
80%
20%
4000
65%
20%
85%
15%
600
70%
25%
95%
5%
30
70%
25%
95%
5%
1.5
Energy Flow through trophic levels
4500
4000
3500
Kcal
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Primary Producer
Herbivore
Primary Carnivore
Secondary Carnivore
What do the rectangles represent?
Tertiary consumers
Secondary consumers
Primary consumers (herbivores)
Producers (plants)
Each rectangle represents the amount of
energy at each trophic level and thus the
number of organisms that can be
supported at that level.
Food Web
If the field mouse is removed the Garder Snake would die out
because the field mouse is its sole source of food. The Red-tailed
hawk would eventually die out as well because it only eats the
field mouse and the garder snake (both of which have died out).
Food Pyramid (one possible example)
Trophic Levels
Red-tailed hawk
Garder snake
Tertiary Consumer
Secondary Consumer
Elk, Moose, Field Mouse
Primary Consumer
Tumble Grass
Producer
Click Here to Go Back
Carbon-Oxygen Cycle
Photosynthesis and
Respiration
are responsible for
most of the CarbonOxygen cycle.
This cycle allows
Carbon and Oxygen
to be recycled and
reused which is
good because we
won’t get more!
Nitrogen Cycle
Bacteria are the
organisms mostly
responsible for the
Nitrogen cycle.
The bacteria can
“fix” nitrogen from
the air, dead
organisms and waste
into chemicals that
plants can use to
make proteins and
nucleic acids
(DNA).
Water Cycle
Water is continual recycled
throughout ecosystems through
the process of evaporation,
condensation, and precipitation.