Behaviorism
By Saul McLeod, published 2007 (Updated 2013)
Behaviorism (also called the behaviorist approach) was the primary paradigm in psychology
between 1920s to 1950 and is based on a number of underlying assumptions regarding
methodology and behavioral analysis:
* Psychology should be seen as a science. Theories need to be supported by empirical data
obtained through careful and controlled observation and measurement of behavior. Watson stated
that “psychology as a behaviorist views it is a purely objective experimental branch of natural
science. Its theoretical goal is … prediction and control” (1913, p. 158).
* Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable behavior, as opposed to internal events
like thinking and emotion. Observable (i.e. external) behavior can be objectively and
scientifically measured. Internal events, such as thinking should be explained through behavioral
terms (or eliminated altogether).
* People have no free will – a person’s environment determines their behavior
* When born our mind is 'tabula rasa' (a blank slate).
* There is little difference between the learning that takes place in humans and that in other
animals. Therefore research can be carried out on animals as well as humans.
* Behavior is the result of stimulus – response (i.e. all behavior, no matter how complex, can be
reduced to a simple stimulus – response association). Watson described the purpose of
psychology as: “To predict, given the stimulus, what reaction will take place; or, given the
reaction, state what the situation or stimulus is that has caused the reaction” (1930, p. 11).
* All behavior is learnt from the environment. We learn new behavior through classical or
operant conditioning.
The psychodynamic approach (Freud) criticizes behaviorism as it does not take into account
the unconscious mind’s influence on behavior, and instead focuses on external observable
behavior. Freud as rejects that idea that people are born a blank slate (tabula rasa) and states that
people are born with instincts (e.g. eros and thanatos).
Biological psychology states that all behavior has a physical / organic cause. They emphasize the
role of nature over nurture. For example, chromosomes and hormones (testosterone) influence
our behavior too, in addition to the environment.
Despite these criticisms behaviorism has made significant contributions to psychology. These
include insights into learning, language development, and moral and gender development, which
have all been explained in terms of conditioning. The contribution of behaviorism can be seen in
some of its practical applications. Behavior therapy and behavior modification represent one of
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the major approaches to the treatment of abnormal behavior and are readily used in clinical
psychology.
Pavlov's Dogs
Like many great scientific advances, classical conditioning was discovered accidentally.
During the 1890s Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov was looking at salivation in dogs in response
to being fed, when he noticed that his dogs would begin to salivate whenever he entered the
room, even when he was not bringing them food. At first this was something of a nuisance (not
to mention messy!).
Pavlovian Conditioning
Pavlov (1902) started from the idea that there are some things that a dog does not need to learn.
For example, dogs don’t learn to salivate whenever they see food. This reflex is ‘hard wired’ into
the dog. In behaviorist terms, it is an unconditioned response (i.e. a stimulus-response connection
that required no learning). In behaviorist terms, we write:
Unconditioned Stimulus (Food) > Unconditioned Response (Salivate)
Pavlov showed the existence of the unconditioned response by presenting a dog with a bowl of
food and measuring its salivary secretions (see image below).
However, when Pavlov discovered that any object or event which the dogs learnt to
associate with food (such as the lab assistant) would trigger the same response, he realized that
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he had made an important scientific discovery, and he devoted the rest of his career to studying
this type of learning.
Pavlov knew that somehow, the dogs in his lab had learned to associate food with his lab
assistant. This must have been learned, because at one point the dogs did not do it, and there
came a point where they started, so their behavior had changed. A change in behavior of this
type must be the result of learning.
In behaviorist terms, the lab assistant was originally a neutral stimulus. It is called neutral
because it produces no response. What had happened was that the neutral stimulus (the lab
assistant) had become associated with an unconditioned stimulus (food).
In his experiment, Pavlov used a bell as his neutral stimulus. Whenever he gave food to his dogs,
he also rang a bell. After a number of repeats of this procedure, he tried the bell on its own. As
you might expect, the bell on its own now caused an increase in salivation.
So the dog had learned an association between the bell and the food and a new behavior had been
learnt. Because this response was learned (or conditioned), it is called a conditioned response.
The neutral stimulus has become a conditioned stimulus.
Pavlov found that for associations to be made, the two stimuli had to be presented close together
in time. He called this the law of temporal contiguity. If the time between the conditioned
stimulus (bell) and unconditioned stimulus (food) is too great, then learning will not occur.
Pavlov and his studies of classical conditioning have become famous since his early work
between 1890-1930. Classical conditioning is "classical" in that it is the first systematic study of
basic laws of learning / conditioning.
Summary
To summarize, classical conditioning (later developed by John Watson) involves learning to
associate an unconditioned stimulus that already brings about a particular response (i.e. a reflex)
with a new (conditioned) stimulus, so that the new stimulus brings about the same response.
Pavlov developed some rather unfriendly technical terms to describe this process. The
unconditioned stimulus (or UCS) is the object or event that originally produces the reflexive /
natural response.
The response to this is called the unconditioned response (or UCR). The neutral stimulus (NS) is
a new stimulus that does not produce a response.
Once the neutral stimulus has become associated with the unconditioned stimulus, it becomes a
conditioned stimulus (CS). The conditioned response (CR) is the response to the conditioned
stimulus.
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Little Albert Experiment (Phobias)
Ivan Pavlov showed that classical conditioning applied to animals. Did it also apply to humans?
In a famous (though ethically dubious) experiment John B. Watson and (1920) showed that it
did.
Little Albert was a 9-month-old infant who was tested on his reactions to various stimuli. He
was shown a white rat, a rabbit, a monkey and various masks. Albert was described as "on the
whole stolid and unemotional" and showed no fear of any of these stimuli. However what did
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startle him and cause him to be afraid was if a hammer was struck against a steel bar behind his
head. The sudden loud noise would cause little Albert to burst into tears.
When "Little Albert" was just over 11 months old when the white rat was presented and seconds
later the hammer was struck against the steel bar. This was done 7 times over the next 7 weeks
and each time "little Albert" burst into tears. By now little Albert only had to see the rat and he
immediately showed every sign of fear. He would cry (whether or not the hammer was hit
against the steel bar) and he would attempt to crawl away.
Watson had shown that classical conditioning could be used to create a phobia. A phobia is an
irrational fear, i.e. a fear that is out of proportion to the danger. Over the next few weeks and
months "Little Albert" was observed and 10 days after conditioning his fear of the rat was much
less marked. This dying out of a learned response is called extinction. However even after a
full month it was still evident.
Reading/ Response Questions:
1. What, according to Behavorism, should be the focus of psychology?
2. In your own words, explain 3 limitations (and/or) criticisms of Behaviorism.
3. Do you dis/agree with Behaviorism’s underlying assumption that humans are born with tabula
rasa? (consider Freud’s argument) Explain.
4. What word/term could be substituted for ‘conditioning’?
5. Provide 3 examples of unconditioned stimulus > unconditioned response in humans
(drawing from your own experiences would be helpful).
6. Provide 3 examples of conditioned stimulus > conditioned response in humans.
(remember: the conditioned stimulus is a previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming
associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response).
7. Was Dr. Watson’s experiment(s) with Little Albert ‘ethical’? Explain why, or why not.
8. There is a need for teachers to try to ensure that students associate positive emotional
experiences with learning. If a student associates negative emotional experiences with school
then this can obviously have bad results … such as creating a school phobia.
What are 3 examples of a ‘school phobia’? What conditioning could/would have led to these?
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Behaviorism Summary
Key Features
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Stimulus - Response
Classical Conditioning & Operant
Conditioning
Reinforcement & Punishment
(Skinner)
Objective Measurement
Social Learning Theory (Bandura)
Nomothetic
Reductionism
Methodology
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Lab Experiments
Little Albert
Edward Thorndike (the cat in a
puzzle box)
Skinner box (rats & pigeons)
Pavlov’s Dogs
Bandura Bobo Doll Experiment
Ethical Considerations
Basic Assumptions
Areas of Application
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Psychology should be seen as a
science, to be studied in a scientific
manner.
Behaviorism is primarily concerned
with observable behavior, as opposed
to internal events like thinking.
Behavior is the result of stimulus –
response (i.e. all behavior, no matter
how complex, can be reduced to a
simple stimulus – response features).
Behavior is determined by the
environment (e.g. conditioning).
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Gender Role Development
Behavioral Therapy (e.g. Flooding)
Phobias
Education
Behavior-Modification
Aversion Therapy
Scientific Methods
Relationships
Language
Moral Development
Aggression
Addiction
Strengths
Limitations
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Scientific
Highly applicable (e.g. therapy)
Emphasizes objective measurement
Many experiments to support theories
Identified comparisons between
animals (Pavlov) and humans (Watson
& Rayner - Little Albert)
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Ignores biology (e.g. testosterone)
Too deterministic (little free-will)
Experiments – low ecological
validity
Humanism – can’t compare
animals to humans
Reductionist
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Skinner - Operant Conditioning
By the 1920s John B. Watson had left academic psychology and other behaviorists
were becoming influential, proposing new forms of learning other than classical
conditioning.
Perhaps the most important of these was Burrhus Frederic Skinner. Although, for
obvious reasons he is more commonly known as B.F. Skinner.
Skinner's views were slightly less extreme than those of Watson. Skinner believed that
we do have such a thing as a mind, but that it is simply more productive to study
observable behavior rather than internal mental events.
Skinner believed that the best way to understand behavior is to look at the causes of
an action and its consequences. He called this approach operant conditioning.
Skinner's theory of operant conditioning was based on the work of Thorndike (1905).
Edward Thorndike studied learning in animals using a puzzle box to propose the
theory known as the 'Law of Effect'.
BF Skinner: Operant Conditioning
Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was based on
Thorndike’s law of effect. Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of Effect -
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Reinforcement. Behavior which is reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e. strengthened);
behavior which is not reinforced tends to die out-or be extinguished (i.e. weakened).
Skinner (1948) studied operant conditioning by conducting experiments using animals
which he placed in a “Skinner Box” which was similar to Thorndike’s puzzle box.
B.F. Skinner (1938) coined the term operant conditioning; it means roughly changing
of behavior by the use of reinforcement which is given after the desired response.
Skinner identified three types of responses or operant that can follow behavior.
Skinner coined the term operant conditioning; it means roughly changing of behavior
by the use of reinforcement which is given after the desired response. Skinner
identified three types of responses or operant that can follow behavior.
• Neutral operants: responses from the environment that neither increase nor
decrease the probability of a behavior being repeated.
• Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a
behavior being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.
• Punishers: Response from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a
behavior being repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.
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We can all think of examples of how our own behavior has been affected by
reinforcers and punishers. As a child you probably tried out a number of behaviors
and learnt from their consequences.
For example, if when you were younger you tried smoking at school, and the chief
consequence was that you got in with the crowd you always wanted to hang out with,
you would have been positively reinforced (i.e. rewarded) and would be likely to
repeat the behavior. If, however, the main consequence was that you were caught,
caned, suspended from school and your parents became involved you would most
certainly have been punished, and you would consequently be much less likely to
smoke now.
Reinforcement (strengthens behavior)
Skinner showed how positive reinforcement worked by placing a hungry rat in his
Skinner box. The box contained a lever in the side and as the rat moved about the box
it would accidentally knock the lever. Immediately it did so a food pellet would drop
into a container next to the lever. The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever
after a few times of being put in the box. The consequence of receiving food if they
pressed the lever ensured that they would repeat the action again and again.
Positive reinforcement strengthens a behavior by providing a consequence an
individual finds rewarding. For example, if your teacher gives you £5 each time you
complete your homework (i.e. a reward) you are more likely to repeat this behavior in
the future, thus strengthening the behavior of completing your homework.
The removal of an unpleasant reinforcer can also strengthen behavior. This is known
as negative reinforcement because it is the removal of an adverse stimulus which is
‘rewarding’ to the animal. Negative reinforcement strengthens behavior because it
stops or removes an unpleasant experience.
For example, if you do not complete your homework you give your teacher £5. You
will complete your homework to avoid paying £5, thus strengthening the behavior of
completing your homework.
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Skinner showed how negative reinforcement worked by placing a rat in his Skinner
box and then subjecting it to an unpleasant electric current which caused it some
discomfort. As the rat moved about the box it would accidentally knock the lever.
Immediately it did so the electric current would be switched off. The rats quickly
learned to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the box. The
consequence of escaping the electric current ensured that they would repeat the action
again and again.
In fact Skinner even taught the rats to avoid the electric current by turning on a light
just before the electric current came on. The rats soon learned to press the lever when
the light came on because they knew that this would stop the electric current being
switched on.
These two learned responses are known as Escape Learning and Avoidance Learning.
Punishment (weakens behavior)
Punishment is defined as the opposite of reinforcement since it is designed to weaken
or eliminate a response rather than increase it.
Like reinforcement, punishment can work either by directly applying an unpleasant
stimulus like a shock after a response or by removing a potentially rewarding
stimulus, for instance, deducting someone’s pocket money to punish undesirable
behavior.
Note: It is not always easy to distinguish between punishment and negative
reinforcement.
Behavior Modification
Behavior modification is a set of therapies / techniques based on operant conditioning
(Skinner, 1938, 1953). The main principle comprises changing environmental events
that are related to a person's behavior. For example, the reinforcement of desired
behaviors and ignoring or punishing undesired ones.
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This is not as simple as it sounds — always reinforcing desired behavior, for example,
is basically bribery.
Operant Conditioning in the Classroom
Behavior modification therapy is much used in clinical and educational psychology,
particularly with people with learning difficulties. In the conventional learning
situation it applies largely to issues of class- and student management, rather than to
learning content. It is very relevant to shaping skill performance.
A simple way of giving positive reinforcement in behavior modification is in
providing compliments, approval, encouragement, and affirmation; a ratio of five
compliments for every one complaint is generally seen as being the most effective in
altering behavior in a desired manner.
Operant Conditioning Summary
Looking at Skinner's classic studies on pigeons’ behavior we can identify some of the
major assumptions of behaviorists approach.
• Psychology should be seen as a science, to be studied in a scientific manner.
Skinner's study of behavior in rats was conducted under carefully controlled
laboratory conditions.
• Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable behavior, as opposed to
internal events like thinking and emotion. Note that Skinner did not say that the
rats learnt to press a lever because they wanted food. He instead concentrated on
describing the easily observed behavior that the rats acquired.
• The major influence on human behavior is learning from our environment. In the
Skinner study, because food followed a particular behavior the rats learned to
repeat that behavior, e.g. classical and operant conditioning.
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• There is little difference between the learning that takes place in humans and that
in other animals. Therefore research (e.g. classical conditioning) can be carried out
on animals (Pavlov’s dogs) as well as on humans (Little Albert). Skinner proposed
that the way humans learn behavior is much the same as the way the rats learned to
press a lever.
So, if your layperson's idea of psychology has always been of people in laboratories
wearing white coats and watching hapless rats try to negotiate mazes in order to get to
their dinner, then you are probably thinking of behavioral psychology.
Behaviorism and its offshoots tend to be among the most scientific of the
psychological perspectives. The emphasis of behavioral psychology is on how we
learn to behave in certain ways. We are all constantly learning new behaviors and how
to modify our existing behavior. Behavioral psychology is the psychological approach
that focuses on how this learning takes place.
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