Webinar for Region 4 Education Service Center
Houston, TX
May 13, 2014
Samuel O. Ortiz, Ph.D.
St. John’s University
Unless otherwise indicated, information contained in this packet is Copyright © Samuel O. Ortiz, Ph.D. May not be reproduced without permission.

Cultural and Linguistic Experiences Mediate Learning:
Formal and Informal Learning Experiences
Children raised in two cultures naturally split their time and experience across each of them.
Unfortunately, parents are usually able to mediate aspects of only their native culture to their children and cannot do so with the new culture because of their own lack of familiarity with it.
This means that children from bilingual-bicultural backgrounds must often navigate both the new language and culture almost on their own, a term I refer to as “cultural pioneering.”
The process of learning a new language and culture thus becomes very dependent on the experiences a child has, particularly while in school. If something is not explicitly taught in school, the chances that it may be taught and learned informally outside the school decrease. This often results in hit-or-miss learning that although occurs for children in general, becomes a much more frequent occurrence for children from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds. Areas that are highly susceptible to this influence include cultural knowledge, especially the subtle, idiosyncratic, and less frequent aspects of it as well as language, particularly correct grammar, pronunciation, usage, and pragmatics including idioms and humor.
Unless otherwise indicated, information contained in this packet is Copyright © Samuel O. Ortiz, Ph.D. May not be reproduced without permission.

Type
A b
Ab
AB
A B
A B a B a B
A
A b
A b
B a
B a
B
Stage
Newly Arrived
After several years of residence – Type 1
Type 2
Language Use
FIRST GENERATON – FOREIGN BORN
Understands little English. Learns a few words and phrases.
Understands enough English to take care of essential everyday needs. Speaks enough English to make self understood.
Preschool Age
School Age
Adulthood – Type 1
Adulthood – Type 2
Is able to function capably in the work domain where English is required. May still experience frustration in expressing self fully in English. Uses immigrant language in all other contexts where English is not needed.
SECOND GENERATION – U.S. BORN
Acquires immigrant language first. May be spoken to in English by relatives or friends. Will normally be exposed to Englishlanguage TV.
Acquires English. Uses it increasingly to talk to peers and siblings. Views English-language TV extensively. May be literate only in English if schooled exclusively in this language.
At work (in the community) uses language to suit proficiency of other speakers. Senses greater functional ease in his first language in spite of frequent use of second.
Uses English for most everyday activities. Uses immigrant language to interact with parents or others who do not speak
English. Is aware of vocabulary gaps in his first language.
THIRD GENERATION – U.S. BORN
Acquires both English and immigrant language simultaneously. Hears both in the home although English tends to predominate.
Preschool Age
School Age
Adulthood
Preschool Age
School Age
Adulthood
Uses English almost exclusively. Is aware of limitation sin the immigrant language. Uses it only when forced to do so by circumstances. Is literate only in English.
Uses English almost exclusively. Has few opportunities for speaking immigrant language. Retains good receptive competence in this language.
FOURTH GENERATION – U.S. BORN
Is spoken to only in English. May hear immigrant language spoken by grandparents and other relatives. Is not expected to understand immigrant language.
Uses English exclusively. May have picked up some of the immigrant language from peers. Has limited receptive competence in this language.
Is almost totally English monolingual. May retain some receptive competence in some domains.
Source: Adapted from Valdés, G. & Figueroa, R. A. (1994), Bilingualism and Testing: A special case of bias (p. 16).
Unless otherwise indicated, information contained in this packet is Copyright © Samuel O. Ortiz, Ph.D. May not be reproduced without permission.

Cultural and Linguistic Experiences Mediate Learning:
Formal and Informal Learning Experiences
Unless otherwise indicated, information contained in this packet is Copyright © Samuel O. Ortiz, Ph.D. May not be reproduced without permission.

Cultural and Linguistic Experiences Mediate Learning:
Opportunity for Learning
Assessment of a student's academic skills and abilities must directly examine the student's skills and abilities with respect to the actual materials and content used for instruction. Thus, authentic assessment seeks to uncover whether learning difficulties can be ascribed to experiential differences rather than ability differences. Not only does this ensure greater validity of the assessment, it provides valuable information necessary to develop specific and effective instructional strategies. In general, evidence of lack of opportunity for learning, ineffective prior instruction, and linguistically inappropriate curricula, are all factors that increase the likelihood that no disability exists.
For example –
According to the manual (1993) for the Nelson-Denny Reading Test, the 80 vocabulary words and their definitions were drawn from :
"current, widely used high school and college texts, including words that must be known by students in order to cope successfully with school assignments." (emphasis added)
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The 30 Million Word Gap
• according to research by Betty Hart and Todd Risley (2003), children from privileged (high SES) families have heard 30 million more words than children from underprivileged (low SES) families by the age of 3.
• in addition, “follow-up data indicated that the 3-year old measures of accomplishment predicted third grade school achievement.”
Source: Hart, B. & Risley, T. r. (2003). The Early Catastrophe: The 30 million word gap. American Educator 27(1), 4-9.
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Cultural and Linguistic Experiences Mediate Learning:
The High Verbal Home Environment
• It is fruitless to attempt to indoctrinate a superannuated canine with innovative maneuvers.
• Scintillate, scintillate, asteroid minified.
• Members of an avian species of identical plumage congregate.
• Pulchritude possesses solely cutaneous profundity.
• It is fruitless to become lachrymose over precipitately departed lacteal fluid.
• Eschew the implement of correction and vitiate the scion.
• All articles that coruscate with resplendence are not truly auriferous.
• Where there are visible vapors having their prevalence in ignited carbonaceous materials, there is conflagration.
• A plethora of individuals with expertise in culinary techniques vitiate the possible concoction produced by steeping certain comestibles.
• Individuals who make their abodes in vitreous edifices should be advised to refrain from catapulting petrous projectiles.
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Cultural and Linguistic Experiences Mediate Learning:
The Low Verbal Home Environment
• You can’t teach an old dog new tricks.
• Twinkle, twinkle little star.
• Birds of a feather flock together.
• Beauty is only skin deep.
• No use crying over spilled milk.
• Spare the rod, spoil the child.
• All that glitters is not gold.
• Where there’s smoke, there’s fire.
• Too many cooks spoil the broth.
• People who live in glass houses shouldn’t throw stones.
Homes where English is not the primary or native language results in linguistic experiences that shape the perceptions and views of the speakers particularly in reference to vocabulary but also what might constitute acceptable ways of communicating that can include comfort with basic grammatical errors, use of code-switching, frequent use of slang or colloquial terminology, uncommon or unusual pragmatics, and variances in general language usage.
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85
70
55
130
115
100
SS
Cultural and Linguistic Experiences Mediate Learning:
Academic Skills and the “Bilingual Bermuda Triangle”
145
86
50
16
PR
99+
98
2
<1
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Cultural and Linguistic Experiences Mediate Learning:
Listening Comprehension and Receptive Language
"I pledge a lesson to the frog of the United States of America, and to the wee puppet for witches hands.
One Asian, under God, in the vestibule, with little tea and just rice for all."
Source: In the Year of the Boar and Jackie Robinson by Bette Bao Lord, © 1986, Harper Trophy.
Children who are learning a second language hear and interpret sounds in a manner that conforms to words that already exist in their vocabulary. This is a natural part of the first and second language acquisition processes and should not be considered abnormal in any way. It represents the brain’s attempt to make sense and meaning of what it perceives by connecting it to what it already knows.
Songs are a good example of this linguistic phenomenon even for native English speakers.
Consider these classic misheard lyrics:
“ There’s a bathroom on the right ”
“ Excuse me while I kiss this guy ”
“
Doughnuts make my brown eyes blue
”
“ Midnight after you’re wasted ”
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Cultural and Linguistic Experiences Mediate Learning:
Oral and Expressive Language
'Twas the night before Christmas, y por todo la casa,
Not a creature was stirring—Caramba! Que Pasa?
Los niños were tucked away in their camas,
Some in camisas, some in pijamas.
While hanging the medias with mucho cuidado,
In hopes that old Santa would feel obligado.
To bring all children, both buenos y malos,
A nice batch of dulces y otros regalos.
A Visit From St. Nicolas – Anonymous, 1823
Bilinguals/bicultural individuals are perfectly happy with two languages existing side by side. It provides an ability to use code switching and dual-mode communication not available to monolinguals. For bilinguals, it doesn’t matter what language is used in conversation because it all makes sense—and mutual comprehension is the goal of all language and communication.
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Cultural and Linguistic Experiences Mediate Learning:
Reading Comprehension
'Twas brillig, and the slithy toves
Did gyre and gimble in the wabe.
All mimsy were the borogroves,
And the mome raths outgrabe.
Jabberwocky by Lewis Carroll
Questions: 1) What things were slithy? 2) What did the toves do in the wabe? 3) How were the borogroves? 4) What kind of raths were there?
Meaning in print is not derived solely from word knowledge. Mature and advanced readers eventually discard “decoding” as the primary means for developing reading abilities in favor of orthographic processing of letters, words, sentences, and grammatical structure. Meaning is often inferred from our cultural knowledge and experience with the language. More experience equals clearer meaning and better comprehension.
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Cultural and Linguistic Experiences Mediate Learning:
Orthographic Processing
As before, comprehension in print is not derived solely from actual word or letter identification or recognition. English is extremely irregular in morphology and mature and advanced readers eventually discard “decoding” as the primary means for developing reading abilities in favor of orthographic processing of letters, words, sentences where even small surface features are sufficient to derive meaning. Similar to grammatical structure, the ability to understand printed text in the absence of such structure, is accomplished via knowledge of the morphological rules and experience with vocabulary that comes from formal and informal sources. Comparatively speaking, ELLs have less experience and thus less ability to generate meaning automatically, fluently, or transparently.
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Cultural and Linguistic Experiences Mediate Learning:
Orthographic Processing
How many times does the letter “f” appear in the sentence above?
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Cultural and Linguistic Experiences Mediate Learning:
Verbal and Mathematical Reasoning
What day follows the day before yesterday if two days from now will be Sunday?
Paul makes $25.00 a week less than the sum of what
Fred and Carl together make. Carl's weekly income would be triple Steven's if he made $50.00 more a week. Paul makes $285.00 a week and Steven makes $75.00 a week.
How much does Fred make?
The ability to engage successfully in verbal reasoning tasks and mathematical word problems presumes the existence of a developmentally proficient level of fluency with the language since it is not the language that is being tested, but the ability to reason. When the native language development is interrupted, bilingual/bicultural individuals may not have the necessary command of the language and the task is confounded by simple comprehension issues and degrades into a test of language, not reasoning.
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Cultural and Linguistic Experiences Mediate Learning:
Cultural Perspective
Rules: Connect all 9 dots above using only 4 straight lines. You may cross lines, but you cannot lift your pencil.
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Cultural and Linguistic Experiences Mediate Learning:
General Knowledge and Cultural Artifacts
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Cultural and Linguistic Experiences Mediate Learning:
General Knowledge and Cultural Artifacts
What I thought The reality
Tabasco – Mexican hot sauce
Kahlua – Hawaiian liquor
Enfamil – Puerto Rican baby formula
Amoco – Bilingual reference to mucous
Chiclet – Mexican chewing gum
Toto – Strange name for a dog
Made by McIlhenny Co., USA
Coffee liqueur made in Mexico
Made by Meade-Johnson, USA
Brand of British Petroleum gas
Made by Cadbury/Adams, USA
Dorothy’s dog’s real name
Acculturation to the mainstream plays a significant role in linguistic development and learning in and out of the classroom. The presence and interaction of dual cultural contexts with which to embed certain culturally-specific words or ideas in English may lead to a failure to comprehend or acquire the true meaning of the word or the concept. Idioms are another example of this problem, for example: “I think it’s cool the way you don’t get on my case about everything.”
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Bottom Line - The Bilingual/Bicultural Experience
• Bilinguals are not two monolinguals in one head —they see the world differently
•
Attainment of developmental proficiency in language and acculturative knowledge acquisition is multifaceted and complex and based on exposure and experience
• Not having learned or developed age/grade related skills, behaviors, knowledge, or abilities due to lack of exposure or experience isn’t the same thing as having sufficient exposure and experience and failing to have learned or acquired them
• The academic, behavioral, social, and developmental standards by which bilinguals in
U.S. public schools will always be judged will necessarily be based on the individuals who are primarily monolingual and monocultural
• Once a bilingual, always a bilingual —individuals do not suddenly cease to be bilingual/bicultural simply because they have become English dominant or English proficient
• Bilingual/bicultural experiences differ significantly from monolingual/monocultural ones and creates significant differences in approaches or attitudes toward school-based learning and behavior in the classroom and across the lifespan
• Influences on early language development can have profound and lifelong effects that may be manifest as low or “at risk” results from behavioral, emotional, cognitive, academic, and speech-language testing and evaluation
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Nondiscriminatory Assessment: Federal Legislation
1. No child, including one who is culturally and linguistically diverse, may be placed in special education solely on the basis of identified academic need in the absence of a disability related to educational performance. (34CFR 300.7)
2. Information about the child's language proficiency in both the primary language and in English must be considered in determining how to conduct the evaluation of a pupil with limited English proficiency. (34CFR 300.532)
3. Lack of familiarity with the English language does not preclude a child from being eligible for special education services. (34CFR 300.534b2)
4. Cultural difference ("disadvantage") is not a sufficient condition with which eligibility for special education services can be questioned. (34CFR 300.7b10ii and 300.541b4)
5. Environmental or economic disadvantage that adversely affects a pupil's academic achievement may be used to form the basis of a disability or establish eligibility for special education services.
(34CFR 300.7b10ii and 300.541b4)
6. The normal process of second-language acquisition, as well as manifestations of dialect and sociolinguistic variance may be diagnosed as a handicapping condition. (34CFR 300.533a and 300.534b)
7. Tests and procedures that are culturally discriminatory can not be used to qualify a pupil for special education services. (34CFR 300.532a1)
8. Tests and other assessment materials need not be provided in the pupil's primary language or other mode of communication. (34CFR 300.532a2)
9. Psychological assessment of a pupil in their native language by a bilingual psychologist meets the requirements under the law for assessment in the primary language. (34CFR 300.136 and 300.533a)
10. Once a pupil is determined to have a disability that merits and requires special education services, no further consideration of the child’s needs in the native language is required. (34CFR 300.324a2iv)
T F
T F
T F
T F
T F
T F
T F
T F
T F
T F
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Sec. 614. Evaluations, Eligibility Determinations, Individualized Education Programs, and Educational Placements.
(b) Evaluation Procedures.
–
…(5) Special Rule for Eligibility Determination.—In making a determination of eligibility under paragraph (4)(A), a child shall not be determined to be a child with a disability if the determinant factor for such determination is —
(A) lack of appropriate instruction in reading, including the essential components of reading instruction (as defined in section 1208(3) of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965;
(B) lack of instruction in math; or
(C) limited English proficiency.
Note that because this language appears as part of the general guidelines for evaluations, it must be adhered to and considered as a part of any evaluation for any disability, not merely SLD where additional exclusionary variables, including cultural
“disadvantage” are also specified in that definition.
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Source: Royston, A. (2014). Understanding the revised language of private practice: DSM-V. Workshop presentation at the National
Association of School Psychologists Annual Conference, Washington DC.
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Sec. 300.8 Child with a disability.
(6) Mental retardation means significantly subaverage general intellectual functioning, existing concurrently with deficits in adaptive behavior and manifested during the developmental period, that adversely affects a child's educational performance.
*Note: “Intellectual Disability” is a new term in IDEA. Until October 2010, the law used the term “mental retardation” and technically remains in print. However, in October
2010, Rosa’s Law was signed by President Obama. Rosa’s Law specifically changed the term to be used in future revisions of IDEA in place of the old term, mental retardation, when referring to this disability category. The actual definition of the term itself did not change and is what has just been shown above.
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Test Performance is Mediated Proportionally by Differences in Developmental Experiences
Cultural Loading and Linguistic Demand
Low Moderate High
But test characteristics alone are insufficient to reflect differences rooted in development. Mean values are needed.
SS =100 95 90 85 80
Tests requiring lower levels of age/grade related acquisition of culture and language result in higher mean scores
Tests requiring higher levels of age/grade related acquisition of culture and language result in lower mean scores
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The Testing of Bilinguals: Early influences and a lasting legacy.
Mean Mental Age (MA) from Binet Scales in a non-native English speaking sample from Yerkes’ data as analyzed by C.C. Brigham (1921)
15
14
Average
Mental
Age
13
12
13.74
13.50
12.53
11.70
13.08
11.29
11
10
20+ 16-20 11-15 6-10
Years of Residence
0-5
Average raw score for native English speakers on Beta = 101.6 (Very Superior; Grade A)
Average raw score for non-native English speakers on Beta = 77.8 (Average; Grade C)
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Declining ELL Test Performance on the WISC
Comparison of 2013 Styck & Watkins data and other WISC studies with ELLs
2013 Styck & Watkins
100
98
96
94
92
90
88
86
84 pcn mr ss bd cd co ln si ds vo
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Acculturation and English Language Proficiency
Mean WJ III GIA across the four levels of language proficiency on the New York State ESL Achievement Test
110
100
90
80
70
101.0
89.55
82.29
71.75
60
50
Proficient Advanced Intermediate Beginner
NYSESLAT Level
Source: Sotelo-Dynega, M., Ortiz, S.O., Flanagan, D.P., Chaplin, W. (2013).
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Acculturative Knowledge and English Language Acquisition:
Relationship to Specific Cognitive Abilities
Domain specific scores across the seven WJ III subtests according to language proficiency level on the NYSESLAT
110
100
90
80
70
60
Gv Gs
Proficient
Gsm
Advanced
Ga Glr
Intermediate
Gf
Beginner
Gc
Source: Sotelo-Dynega, M., Ortiz, S.O., Flanagan, D.P., Chaplin, W. (2013). English Language Proficiency and Test Performance: Evaluation of bilinguals with the Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Cognitive Ability. Psychology in the Schools, Vol 50(8), pp. 781-797.
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Acculturative Knowledge and English Language Acquisition:
Relationship to Specific Cognitive Abilities
Mean subtest scores across the four WASI subtests and four
WMLS-R subtests according to language proficiency level
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
MR BD LWI
Low Proficiency
ANA DICT
Intermediate Prof.
SIM VOC
High Proficiency
PIC
Source: Dynda, A.M., Flanagan, D.P., Chaplin, W., & Pope, A. (2008), unpublished data..
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Culture-Language Interpretive Matrix: Case Study
KABC-II DATA FOR TRAN (ENGLISH)
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Culture-Language Interpretive Matrix: Case Study
KABC-II DATA FOR TRAN (ENGLISH)
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Sec. 300.8 Child with a disability.
(4)
(i) Emotional disturbance means a condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects a child's educational performance:
(A) An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors.
(B) An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers.
(C) Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances.
(D) A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression.
(E) A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems.
(ii) Emotional disturbance includes schizophrenia. The term does not apply to children who are socially maladjusted, unless it is determined that they have an emotional disturbance under paragraph (c)(4)(i) of this section.
Note that “social maladjustment” is not clearly defined in Federal or most State regulations. For example, CT defines it as “a persistent pattern of violating societal norms with truancy, substance abuse, a perpetual struggle with authority, is easily frustrated, impulsive, and manipulative.”
(Whitted, Cleary & Takiff, 2011).
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“Social maladjustment” as an exclusionary variable is not clearly defined in Federal or most State regulations. For example, CT defines it as “a persistent pattern of violating societal norms with truancy, substance abuse, a perpetual struggle with authority, is easily frustrated, impulsive, and manipulative.” (Whitted, Cleary & Takiff, 2011).
Characteristics of Social Maladjustment Include:
-Lack of motivation/interest in school
-Self-centered, impulsive and irresponsible behavior
-Low frustration tolerance
-Rejection of authority and discipline
-Absence of concern for the feelings of others
-Projection of blame for socially proscribed behavior
-Violation of rights of others
-Habitual lying
-Inability to delay gratification
-Frequent stealing
-Substance abuse
-Membership in socially maladjusted peer group
-Manipulation for personal gain
-Excessive use of profanity
-Extreme testing of limits
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Who am I?
Where do I fit in?
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Where is my next meal coming from?
How can I avoid getting wrapped up in crime or drugs?
Can I walk safely in my neighborhood without fear?
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Unless otherwise indicated, information contained in this packet is Copyright © Samuel O. Ortiz, Ph.D. May not be reproduced without permission.

Understand and Recognize the Sources of Bias in Assessment*
All “diagnostic” decision-making is influenced by our own experiences and biases.
- Exacerbated by ambiguous, incomplete, and unproven criteria.
Biases may be related to child-based characteristics (e.g., ethnicity, SES, culture) and psychologist-based reasoning errors (e.g., confirmation bias).
*Source: Allen, R.A. & Hanchon, T. A. (2013). What can we learn from school-based Emotional Disturbance assessment practices?
Implications for practice and preparation in school psychology. Psychology in the Schools, 50 (3), 290-299.
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Sources of Error in School-based Identification of ED
Instrument-Related Error
- Use of tests with poor or questionable norms or psychometric properties
(e.g., reliability, validity) – a particularly important issue when working with
ELLs
Lilienfield & Ammirati (2012) identified several sources of psychologist-based error in the practice of school psychology.
- Confirmation Bias
- Illusory Correlations
- Premature Closure
- Bias Blind Spot
- Belief Perseverance
- Groupthink
- Search Satisfying
-Diagnosis Momentum
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The “solution…” (Hanchon & Allen, 2013)
Emotional disorders must be approached from a broader perspective than educational guidelines passed by legislators.
- Contributions from other mental health fields
- Other established diagnostic codes (DSM-V; ICD-10)
- Expert recommendations (Merrell, 2008; Mash & Barkley, 2007; Sattler, 2008)
Assessment must be guided by: (1) accurate identification; and (2) the development of interventions.
Source: Allen, R.A. & Hanchon, T. A. (2013). What can we learn from school-based Emotional Disturbance assessment practices?
Implications for practice and preparation in school psychology. Psychology in the Schools, 50 (3), 290-299.
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The “solution…” (Hanchon and Allen, 2013)
Follow expert recommendations (Merrell, 2008; Mash & Barkley, 2007; Sattler,
2008).
- ED assessment must utilize a truly comprehensive multimethod , multisource approach.
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The “solution…” (Hanchon and Allen, 2013)
Utilize only psychometrically defensible instruments (e.g., projectives tend to have very poor psychometric properties)
Lilienfield & Ammirati (2012) recommendations for reducing psychologist-based errors:
- Seek out disconfirming evidence
Do not become overly attached to one’s hypotheses
- Seriously consider rival hypotheses
- do not cherry-pick your data
Put one’s intuitions to systematic tests
- Be skeptical of clinical wisdom
Be cognizant of one’s blind spots
- Encourage dissent
- Maintain a self-critical attitude
Note that the procedures above work for ALL types of evaluations including ED evaluations on mainstream children. But taken together, they represent a basic strategy which is to “see” beyond one’s own ethnocentric point of view so as to appreciate and understand someone else’s attitudes, beliefs, values, or behaviors. Admittedly, this is not an easy thing to do, but is essential for nondiscriminatory assessment.
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The “solution…” (Hanchon and Allen, 2013)
Remain grounded in a scientific approach to mental health identification and service provision.
- Utilize a systematic hypotheses-testing model
- Keep up with relevant literature, research, and advances from other fields/organizations.
Consider requiring pre-referral interventions and response data.
Note that when used as the only data, evidence of a failure to respond to intervention is insufficient for identification and diagnosis.
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Guidelines for Cultural Competence in ED and ID Evaluation*
• Refrain from making assumptions
• Build rapport with the student/family
• Approach the student with a curious and open mind; express gratitude for learning about their culture
• Interview the student to obtain insight into the purpose of a specific belief, value, behavior or perceived attitude
• Provide information about the effects of their behavior in the school setting, while demonstration respect for their culture
*Source: Giulani, G. & Pierangelo, R. (2008). Classroom management for students with emotional and behavioral disorders.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
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Unless otherwise indicated, information contained in this packet is Copyright © Samuel O. Ortiz, Ph.D. May not be reproduced without permission.

Nondiscriminatory Assessment and Cross-Battery Resources
BOOKS:
Rhodes, R., Ochoa, S. H. & Ortiz, S. O. (2005). Comprehensive
Assessment of Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students: A practical approach. New York: Guilford.
Flanagan, D. P. & Ortiz, S.O. (2007). Essentials of Cross-Battery
Assessment, Second Edition. New York: Wiley.
Flanagan, D.P., Ortiz, S.O., Alfonso, V., & Mascolo, J. (2006). The
Achievement Test Desk Reference (ATDR): A guide to Learning
Disability Assessment, 2 nd Edition. New York: Wiley.
Flanagan, D.P., McGrew, K.S., & Ortiz, S.O. (2000). The Wechsler
Intelligence Scales and Gf-Gc Theory: A Contemporary Approach to
Interpretation. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
ONLINE:
CHC Cross-Battery Online http://www.crossbattery.com/
Unless otherwise indicated, information contained in this packet is Copyright © Samuel O. Ortiz, Ph.D. May not be reproduced without permission.