Laboratory 2
Jessica Radke-Snead, RD, MS
Anatomy and Physiology 241
Spokane Falls Community College
Syllabus Review
• Schedule: Mon/Wed 300-500pm
– 4 Lecture and Lab Exams: Jan 16, Feb 6, Feb 27 and Mar 18
– No Lab on Jan 21 or Feb 18
• Attendance
– Expectation is that you will attend class
– Successful students attend class, are prepared for class and are
active participants in the class
– Missed information and missed opportunities affects test
performance, as well as individual professional integrity
– Un-announced quizzes may be given at any time
• Absences
– Lecture exams must be made up within one week
– Lab exams cannot be made up—no exceptions
• Find another lab time to sit for the exam if you can’t make yours
Syllabus Review
• Grades
– Earned on a basis of total points derived from both
lecture and lab exams, and any appointed
assignments or quizzes
– A detailed grading scale will be posted online to track
your progress
• Personal honestly and integrity
– The most important attributes of any professional
– Cheating will not be tolerated. Period.
Syllabus Review
• Student responsibilities
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Behave in a professional manner
Pay attention to course calendar
Actively participate in course activities
Seek assistance from instructors when needed
Take control of your attitude, time and performance
• Instructor responsibilities
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Behave in a professional manner
Facilitate a positive learning environment and open-communication
Guide students in their quest to gain knowledge
Establish well-defined student goals
Share knowledge
Provide a course calendar with specific dates of events
Inform students of their performance and grades in a timely manner
Syllabus Review
• Tips for success
– Be organized and efficient
• Start small and build your foundation
– Begin with terms, connect terms to make a concept, connect
concepts to understand the big picture
• Study lecture and lab materials simultaneously—make
connections, develop the “big picture”
– Regularly and effectively study and review course
materials
• Isolate study time, eliminate distractions
– Make a plan and see it through
Any questions?
Lab 1 Review: Organ Systems
What organ systems are primarily involved in:
Protection, support and movement?
Internal communication and integration?
Fluid transport?
Defense?
Input and output?
Reproduction?
Organ systems: Answers
Protection, support and movement: Integumentary, skeletal
and muscular systems
Internal communication and integration: Nervous and
endocrine system
Fluid transport: Circulatory and lymphatic system
Defense: Immune system
Input and output: Respiratory, urinary and digestive systems
Reproduction: Reproductive system
Lab 1 Review: True or False?
1.
A single sagittal section of the body can pass through one lung but
not through both.
2. It is possible to see both eyes in one frontal section of the head.
3. The knee is both superior and proximal to the tarsal region.
4. The diaphragm is ventral to the lungs.
5. The esophagus is in the dorsal body cavity.
6. The liver is in the lateral abdominal region.
7. The heart is in the mediastinum.
8. Both kidneys could be shown in a single coronal section of the body.
9. The peritoneum lines the inside of the stomach and intestines.
10. The sigmoid colon is in the lower right quadrant of the abdomen.
True or False: Answers
1.
A single sagittal section of the body can pass through one lung but
not through both. TRUE
2. It is possible to see both eyes in one frontal section of the head. TRUE
3. The knee is both superior and proximal to the tarsal region. TRUE
4. The diaphragm is INFERIOR to the lungs.
5. The esophagus is in the VENTRAL body cavity.
6. The liver is in the HYPOCHONDRIAC region, which is superior to the
lateral abdominal region.
7. The heart is in the mediastinum. TRUE
8. Both kidneys could be shown in a single coronal section of the body.
TRUE—FRONTAL = CORONAL
9. The peritoneum lines the OUTSIDE of the stomach and intestines.
10. The sigmoid colon is in the lower LEFT quadrant of the abdomen.
Lab 2: Microscope, Cells and Epithelial
Tissue
• Common cell shapes
– Squamous: thin, flat, angular contours (esophageal lining,
skin)
– Cuboidal: squared (liver)
– Columnar: rectangular; markedly taller than wide
(intestinal lining)
– Spheroid/Ovoid: round/oval (fat and egg cells)
– Discoid: doughnut-shaped (RBCs)
– Stellate: multiple extensions, star-like shape (nerve cells)
– Fusiform (spindle-shaped): thick center, tapered ends
(smooth muscle cells)
– Fibrous: thread-like shape (skeletal muscle cells)
Squamous Epithelium
Description:
– Single (simple) or multiple layers (stratified) of flat,
scale-like cells
– Spherical to stretched, centrally placed nucleus
What are these adapted for? Diffusion and
filtration
Where do we find them? Endothelium (lines heart
and BV) and mesothelium (lines thoracic and
abdominopelvic cavities, covers organs within
these cavities as part of serous membranes)
Stratified Squamous Epithelium
Description:
– Multiple cell layers with cells becoming increasingly
flat toward surface
– Spherical to stretched, centrally placed nucleus
– Basal cells may be cuboidal to columnar
What are these adapted for?
– Resists abrasion (“sloughs off”)
– Penetration by pathogenic organisms
Where do we find them? Tongue, oral mucosa,
esophagus, anal canal, vagina
Keratinized Stratified Squamous
Epithelium
Description:
– Multiple cell layers with cells becoming increasingly flat toward
surface
– Basal cells may be cuboidal to columnar
– Additional surface layer of keratin (protein resistant to friction
that repels bacteria) and compact dead cells without nuclei
What are these adapted for? Resists abrasion, retards water
loss through skin and resists penetration by pathogenic
organisms
Where do we find them? Epidermis; Palms of hands and
bottom of feet are especially heavily keratinized
Cuboidal Epithelium
Description:
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Typically single layer of square cells
Spherical, centrally placed nucleus
Pyramidal and arranged around a central space in glands
Brush border of microvilli in some kidney tubules
Ciliated in bronchioles of lung
What are these adapted for?
– Absorption and secretion
– Production of protective mucous coat
– Movement of respiratory mucus
Where do we find them? Liver, thyroid, mammary, salivary
and other glands, most kidney tubules and bronchioles
Columnar Epithelium
Description:
– Tall, narrow cells
– Oval-shaped nuclei, vertically oriented, usually in the basal half
of the cell
– Often shows a brush border of microvilli—ciliated in some
organs
– May possess goblet cells
What are these adapted for?
– Absorption
– Secretion of mucus and other products
– Movement of egg and embryo in uterine tube
Where do we find them? Inner lining of stomach, intestines,
gallbladder, uterus and uterine tubes; some kidney tubules
Non-Ciliated Columnar Epithelium
Description:
– Contains a brush border of microvilli
What are these adapted for?
– Increases the surface area and rate of absorption
– Goblet cells secrete mucus
Where do we find them? Inner lining of stomach,
and intestines
Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
Description:
– Appears multi-layered
– Some cells do not reach the surface, but all cells reach the
basement membrane
– Nuclei at several levels in deeper half of epithelium
– Often with goblet cells
– Often ciliated
What are these adapted for?
– The cells that reach the surface either secrete mucus (goblet
cells) or bear cilia that sweep away mucus and trapped foreign
particles
Where do we find them? Respiratory tract from nasal cavity
to bronchi, portions of male urethra
Transitional Epithelium
Description:
– Resembles stratified squamous epithelium, but surface cells
are rounded, not flattened and often bulge at surface
– Typically 5-6 cells thick when relaxed and 2-3 cells thick when
stretched
– Cells may be flatter and thinner when epithelium is stretched
(distended bladder)
– Some cells have 2 nuclei
What are these adapted for?
– Stretches to allow filling or urinary tract
Where do we find them? Urinary tract-portion of kidney,
ureter, bladder, part of urethra, allantoic duct in umbilical
cord
Cell Surface Area and Volume
• Most human cells range from 10-15 micrometers in
diameter
• As a cell doubles in diameter, its volume increases 8-fold
but its surface area only increases 4-fold.
• Effect of cell growth
– Diameter (D) is increased by a factor of 2 (D x 2)
– Surface area is increased by a factor of 4 (D2)
– Volume is increased by a factor of 8 (D3)
A cell that is too large may have too little plasma membrane
to serve the metabolic needs of its increased volume of
cytoplasm, ie it cannot support itself
Mitosis: The Cell Cycle
• Length of cell cycle varies
greatly from one cell type to
another
– Stomach and skin cells divide
rapidly—why?
– Bone and cartilage cells
divide slowly—why?
– Skeletal muscle and nerve
cells do not divide at all!
• Stem cell research may allow
for division in the future
– Some cells cease to divide for
days, years or the rest of
one’s life—called G-Zero
phase
• Characteristic of cancer cells
G1: First Gap Phase
(Interphase)
• Interval between cell division and DNA replication
• Cell synthesizes proteins, grows and carries out its
preordained tasks for the body
• Accumulate the materials needed to replicate their
DNA into the next phase
• In cultured fibroblasts, which divide every 18-24
hours, G1 takes 8-10 hours
S: Synthesis Phase
(Interphase)
• Cell makes a duplicate copy of its centrioles and all
of its DNA
• 2 identical sets of DNA are then available to be
divided up between daughter cells at the next cell
division
• This phase takes 6-8 hours in cultured fibroblasts
G2: Second Gap Phase
(Interphase)
• Relatively brief interval between DNA replication
and cell division
• Cell finishes replicating its centrioles
• Synthesizes enzymes that control cell division
• This phase takes 4-6 hours in cultured fibroblasts
M: Mitotic Phase
• Cell replicates its nucleus then divides to form
2 new daughter cells
• This phase takes 1-2 hours in cultured
fibroblasts
M Phase: Prophase
• Chromatin condenses
into chromosomes and
nuclear envelope
breaks down
• Spindle fibers grow
from centrioles
• Centrioles migrate to
opposite poles of cell
M Phase: Metaphase
• Chromosomes lie
along midline of
cell
• Some spindle fibers
attach to
kinetochores
• Fibers of aster
attach to plasma
membrane
M Phase: Anaphase
• Centromeres divide
into 2
• Spindle fibers pull
sister chromatids to
opposite poles of cell
• Each pole (future
daughter cell) now
has an identical set
of genes
M Phase: Telophase
• Chromosomes gather at
each pole of cell
• Chromatin decondenses
• New nuclear envelope
appears at each pole
• New nucleoli appear in
each nucleus
• Mitotic spindle vanishes
• End of nuclear division
• Overlaps with
cytokinesis
Cytokinesis
• Division of the cytoplasm
into 2 cells
– Motor protein myosin pulls on
microfilaments of actin in the
membrane skeleton
– Creates the cleavage furrow
around the equator of the cell
• Early traces of cytokinesis
are visible as early as
anaphase
Daughter cells now in
Interphase (G1, S, and G2)
Objectives for Lab 2
• Identify microscope parts and their function
• Identify cellular organelles on charts and models
available and each organelle’s function
• Answer the following when you examine slides:
– What is the size and shape of each cell type?
– What is the specific function for each of these cells?
– How might the cell size and shape promote the
specific function?
Please be careful with lab equipment and slides.
Please ask for assistance when needed—Enjoy!