西方文明史
第十四講：中古宗教發展至十六世紀宗教改革
劉 慧
教授
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1
Religious Life in the Middle Ages
1, 633, 1054, 1517
2
3
1-2nd c: the clerics and Scripture
4-6th c: the Nicene Creed, St Augustine, the Benedictine Rule
5-9th c: missionaries, the cult of saints, rural parishes
9-11th c: the Investiture Contest, new monastic orders, the
canon laws
5. 12-13th c: new Christian piety, the mendicant orders and the
sacramental system
6. 14-15th c: new theory of salvation, anti-clericalism
7. Martin Luther 1483-1546
1.
2.
3.
4.
4
•
•
•
•
•
•
Pope
Archbishop
Bishop
Archdeacon
(Parish) priest
Deacon, sub-deacon …
• Abbot (/ Prior)
• Monks
• Benedictine
• Cluniac
• Cistercian
5
• Friars
• Dominican (OP)
• Franciscan (OFM)
1-2nd c: the clerics and Scripture
4-6th c: the Nicene Creed, St Augustine, the Benedictine Rule
5-9th c: missionaries, the cult of saints, rural parishes
9-11th c: the Investiture Contest, new monastic orders, the
canon laws
5. 12-13th c: new Christian piety, the mendicant orders and the
sacramental system
6. 14-15th c: new theory of salvation, anti-clericalism
7. Martin Luther 1483-1546
1.
2.
3.
4.
6
• St Augustine
– Adam and Eve and original sin
– Predestination
• God would be purely just if he condemned all
humans to hell, but he is also merciful so he
elected to save a few
– Grace, free will and the church: the Pelagian
Controversy
• Pelagius (354-420)
– Human race is composed of two societies, the
‘City of Earth’ and the ‘City of God’
7
•
•
•
•
•
•
Pope
Archbishop
Bishop
Archdeacon
(Parish) priest
Deacon,
sub-deacon …
• Abbot/ abbess
• (Prior)
• Monks/ nuns
• Friars
• Dominican (OP)
• Franciscan (OFM)
• Benedictine Rule;
St Benedict (c.489-543)
• Cluniac
• Cistercian
• Communal and private prayer (8
canonical hours); study; manual
labour
8
1-2nd c: the clerics and Scripture
4-6th c: the Nicene Creed, St Augustine, the Benedictine Rule
5-9th c: missionaries, the cult of saints, rural parishes
9-11th c: the Investiture Contest, new monastic orders, the
canon laws
5. 12-13th c: new Christian piety, the mendicant orders and the
sacramental system
6. 14-15th c: new theory of salvation, anti-clericalism
7. Martin Luther 1483-1546
1.
2.
3.
4.
9
• Conversion of the Franks, Anglo-Saxons and Germans
• St Boniface, the ‘Apostle of the Germans’ c.680-794
10
•
•
•
•
•
•
Pope
Archbishop
Bishop
Archdeacon
Parish priest
Deacon,
sub-deacon …
• Abbot (/ Prior)
• Monks
• Benedictine
• Cluniac
• Cistercian
11
• Friars
• Dominican (OP)
• Franciscan (OFM)
• The popular cult of saints
– Hagiography; relics; pilgrimages (Rome;
Jerusalem; Santiago de Compostela; Canterbury)
– Pre-12th c: small community’s values were
projected onto the local saint –saint as mediator
in human conflicts
– assistance in day-to-day life
– Later in the 12th c: saints provided a human face
for the Holy
12
13
1-2nd c: the clerics and Scripture
4-6th c: the Nicene Creed, St Augustine, the Benedictine Rule
5-9th c: missionaries, the cult of saints, rural parishes
9-11th c: the Investiture Contest, new monastic orders, the
canon laws
5. 12-13th c: new Christian piety, the mendicant orders and the
sacramental system
6. 14-15th c: new theory of salvation, anti-clericalism
7. Martin Luther 1483-1546
1.
2.
3.
4.
14
• Ottonian church system
Ring and Staff
– Otto I (936-973)
• Papal election decree 1059
• Concordat of Worms 1122
15
•
•
•
•
•
•
Pope
Archbishop
Bishop
Archdeacon
(Parish) priest
Deacon,
sub-deacon …
• Abbot/ abbess
• (Prior)
• Monks/ nuns
Conversi
• Friars
• Dominican (OP)
• Franciscan (OFM)
• Benedictine
• Cluniac – elaborate liturgy
• Cistercian – wool
16
1-2nd c: the clerics and Scripture
4-6th c: the Nicene Creed, St Augustine, the Benedictine Rule
5-9th c: missionaries, the cult of saints, rural parishes
9-11th c: the Investiture Contest, new monastic orders, the
canon laws
5. 12-13th c: new Christian piety, the mendicant orders and the
sacramental system
6. 14-15th c: new theory of salvation, anti-clericalism
7. Martin Luther 1483-1546
1.
2.
3.
4.
17
1)
More emotionally charged, more
‘merciful’
• The Crucifixion – Christ’s redemptive
suffering
• The Virgin Mary – compassionate
intercessor for sinners
the Gero Cross
– Eastern Orthodox
– St Bernard of Clairvaux and the
Cistercians
c. 970
• The purgatory
– Frightful; intellectual dimension;
reassurance
18
•
Ave Maria Gratia plena
Maria Gratia plena
Maria Gratia plena
Ave, ave dominus
Dominus tecum
Benedicta tu in mulieribus
Et benedictus
Et benedictus fructus ventris tui
Ventris tui Jesus
Ave Maria
Ave Maria Mater dei
Ora pro nobis pecatoribus
Ora, ora pro nobis
Ora ora pro nobis pecatoribus
• Hail Mary, full of Grace,
the Lord is with thee;
• blessed art thou among women,
and blessed is the fruit of thy
womb, Jesus.
• Holy Mary, Mother of God,
pray for us sinner now,
and in the hour of our death
Nunc et in hora mortis
In hora mortis, mortis nostrae
In hora mortis nostrae
Ave Maria!
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2)
Heresies and the new mendicant orders
• Heresy = the obstinate adherence, by a professed Christian, to a freely chosen opinion that
deviates from the defined teaching of the church
• The Waldensians:
– Peter Waldo, merchant of Lyons c.1173 started a life of apostolic poverty and
preaching in towns
• The Cathars: 1130s-1170s-mid-13thc
– Dualism; no Passion, no Resurrection. An alternative church
– 1209-29 Albigesian Crusade
• The mendicant orders:
– St Dominic (1170-1221)
• Education. 1233 inquisition: preaching – evidence from neighbours – use of torture
– St Francis of Assisi (c.1182-1226)
• 1209 the Franciscan order. ‘common touch’: birds and the beauty of the material world
20
•
•
•
•
•
•
Pope
Archbishop
Bishop
Archdeacon
(Parish) priest
Deacon,
sub-deacon …
Fra Angelico (1267-1337)
Perugia Altarpiece 1447-8
Tempera
Galleria Nazionale dell'Umbria, Perugia
•
•
Abbot (/ Prior)
Monks
•
•
•
Benedictine
Cluniac
Cistercian
St Dominic 1170-1221
21
•
Friars
•
•
Dominican (OP)
Franciscan (OFM)
St Francis of Assisi 1182-1226
GIOTTO di Bondone
(1267-1337)
Legend of St Francis: 15.
Sermon to the Birds
1297-99
Fresco, 270 x 200 cm.
Upper Church, San
Francesco, Assisi
3) Elaboration of the sacramental system
• 1215 4th Lateran Council. Ritual as miracle that conveys divine grace.
–
Baptism
–
Confirmation
–
The Eucharist
•
•
–
Penance
•
•
•
•
–
–
–
‘Transubstantiation’: Aristotle on the nature of existence: substance, accidents
Luther’s ‘Consubstantiation’
12thc: sin → guilt + punishment. 1) attrition + 2) confession, penalty, absolution.
Purgatory
Sense of shame constituted a punishment
Indulgence
Luther’s Ninety-Five Theses
Extreme Unction
Holy Orders
Matrimony
22
A Catholic priest celebrating the Eucharist
•
Luther on the Eucharist
– ‘Consubstantiation’: the real presence share the same time and space with the bread;
God reveals himself there
23
24
•
•
Indulgence: concessions by ecclesiastical authorities that cancelled all or
part of the temporal penalties that had been imposed by the church upon
the sinner to expiate his sin
Given for
–
–
•
Mechanism
–
–
•
major pious acts at first: e.g. crusades;
and later for lesser pious acts, e.g. 1300 Jubilee indulgences
mid-13thc: treasury of merits. Indulgence applies some of the ‘merit’ from the
treasury to a given person
Late 14thc pardoners: indulgences applicable for the dead in purgatory
Representing an overflow of God’s grace, mediated though the Christian
community, past, present and future – great demand among the Christians
25
• 31 Oct 1517 Ninety-Five Theses at Wittenburg
– Objection to the avowed object of the expenditure (St Peter’s Basilica)
– The pope has no power over purgatory
– Consideration for the welfare of the sinner
• Diverting charity, inducing a false sense of security
• November 1518: the bull Cum postquam
– Indulgences apply only to penalty and not to guilt
– Penalties on earth: the church has complete jurisdiction
– Penalties in the purgatory: the church is only petitioning to God (presenting
superfluous merits)
26
1-2nd c: the clerics and Scripture
4-6th c: the Nicene Creed, St Augustine, the Benedictine Rule
5-9th c: missionaries, the cult of saints, rural parishes
9-11th c: the Investiture Contest, new monastic orders, the
canon laws
5. 12-13th c: new Christian piety, the mendicant orders and the
sacramental system
6. 14-15th c: new theory of salvation, anti-clericalism
7. Martin Luther 1483-1546
1.
2.
3.
4.
27
1) William of Ockham (c.1285-1349)
– Nominalist: all universal ideas, all general concepts, were mere names
= concepts had no demonstrable connection with external reality
– Authority of the papacy as head of the universal church could be
exercised by an emperor
• Pope John XXII’s quarrel with Emperor Lewis of Bavaria (1314-46)
– Potentia Dei, ‘freedom’ of God:
• Instead of the church, God could have chosen other means for humans’
salvation
28
– Efficacy of the sacraments was not due to their intrinsically containing
or conveying grace, but came from a covenant made by God
– Salvation depended on whether God would keep his word
•
Martin Luther (1483-1546)
– New theology of justification by faith
– Good works (pilgrimage, cult of saints etc.) never contributed to one’s
salvation
29
2) Spiritual prestige of the papacy declined
– Zenith: 12-13th c
– Crusades; fighting the Staufens; Philip IV (and Edward I) and taxation
• The bull Unam Sanctum (1302), the pope’s supreme authority in both spiritual
and temporal matters is ‘absolutely necessary for salvation’
–
–
–
–
Papacy in Avignon 1309-1376
The Great Schism 1378-1417
The Conciliar movement -1449
The Italian territorial papacy
• By 1449: national churches
– E.g. 1438 France
• To reform or to replace the clerical order?
30
7. Martin Luther (1483-1546)
• 1505- monk; 1507 first mass; failure at
confession
• 1513 Tower experience: ‘justification by faith
alone’
– Justice: salvation; to justify: to save. Justice =
enforcing the law; justification = suspending
sentence, changing the offender
– Faith causes reform (‘conversion’); faith is God’s
work in us
– Faith: believe God is seeking to save, trust God
will keep his promise and the Holy Spirit will
regenerate the sinner’s soul
– salvation is God’s free gift
31
•
•
•
•
31 Oct 1517 Ninety-Five Theses at Wittenburg
Archbishop Albrecht of Mainz appealed to Pope Leo X
November 1518: the bull Cum postquam
October 1518: Luther met papal representative Cardinal Cajetan
– Cajetan: the pope had the inalienable right to interpret the Bible (and need
prove nothing)
– Luther became a German folk hero (foreign papacy interested only in money
and obedience)
• July 1519: disputation at Leipzig with John Eck
– Forced Luther to take his theories to their logical conclusions: from testing one
aspect of papal power against scripture to testing every aspect
32
• Pamphlets of 1520
• Justification by faith alone
• Sola scriptura
– traditional authority: 1) the Bible, 2) the traditions and 3) the pope.
Luther: not logically consistent
• In theory, the Holy Spirit and right reason would make the sense of the
scripture plain to the believers
• Priesthood of all believers: in God’s eyes, all people were equal in
the church and faith. The church = the believers
– 5/7 Sacraments: no need, could not be proven by scripture
• Baptism: an introduction to the community of the faithful – impact on
monasticism
• The Eucharist: not magical but mystical, not the performance of a rite but the
experience of a presence. ‘Consubstantiation’
33
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